SADHANA STEPS

 

                                                                  STEP 21

              PRELIMINARY MANTRA CHANTING (PURVA MANTRA JAPA)

                  ONCE YOU HAVE MENTALLY ESTABLISHED YOURSELF AS THE DEITY AND HAVE COMPLETED THE PROCESS, CHANT THE GAYATRI MANTRA 16 TIMES.

                                                                 STEP 22

                          PRELIMINARY HANDLOCKS (PURVA MUDRAS)

                 MUDRAS ARE HANDLOCKS AND THEY ARE USED TO CAPTURE THE ENERGY OF THE MANTRA. GAYATRI SADHANA HAS 24 HANDLOCKS THAT ARE PERFORMED BEFORE YOU BEGIN THE CHANTING AND 8 THAT AREPERFORMED AFTER YOU ARE DONE CHANTING.

                      THE 24 PRELIMINARY HANDLOCKS ARE AS FOLLOWS :

               HANDLOCK (MUDRA)                       GESTURE WITH BOTH HANDS

             (SAMUKHAM)                                                 TURN YOUR PALM DOWNWARDS AND 

                                                                                         JOIN ALL THE FINGERS OF BOTH HANDS.

             (SAMPUTAM)                                                   FORM A BRACKET WITH YOUR PALMS                                                                                                FACING EACH OTHER.

             (VITATAM)                                                        OPEN YOUR HANDS AND LET BOTH                                                                                                    PALMS FACE EACH OTHER.

            (VISTRAM)                                                        INCREASE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN                                                                                                   YOUR PALMS FROM THE PREVIOUS                                                                                                      MUDRA AND TURN THEM SLIGHTLY UP.

           (DVIMUKHAM)                                                  JOIN LITTLE AND RING FINGERS OF                                                                                                    BOTH HANDS.

          (TRIMUKHAM)                                                    KEEPING THE EARLIER MUDRA INTACT,                                                                                            JOIN MIDDLE FINGERS AS WELL NOW.

        (CATURMUKHAM)                                               KEEPING THE PREVIOUS MUDRA AS IT                                                                                              IS, JOIN THE INDEX FINGERS AS WELL.

       (PANCAMUKHAM)                                               NOW JOIN THE THUMBS TOO.

       (SANMUKHAM)                                                   KEEPING YOUR HANDS JOINED, NOW                                                                                               UNJOIN AND SPREAD THE THUMBS AND                                                                                            LITTLE FINGERS.

      (ADHOMUKHAM)                                               BEND YOUR FINGERS AND TURN YOUR                                                                                            HANDS OVER SO THE BACK OF THE                                                                                                    RIGHT HAND FINGERS TOUCHES THE                                                                                                BACK OF LEFT HAND FINGERS.

     (VYAPAKANJALIKAM)                                       TURN THESE HANDS OVER AND SPREADS                                                                                        SO BOTH PALMS NOW FACE UPWARDS                                                                                              WITH HANDS TOGETHER.

    (SAKATAM)                                                            TURN YOUR HANDS OVER (PALMS                                                                                                      FACING  DOWN) AND JOIN THE INDEX                                                                                                FINGERS AND THUMBS.

  (YAMPASAM)                                                          ENTWINE YOUR INDEX FINGERS AND LET                                                                                       THE RIGHT HAND HANG.

   (GRATHITAM)                                                        ENTWINE ALL YOUR FINGERS AND FORM                                                                                         ONE FIST.

 (UNMUKHONMUKHAM)                                       BRING ALL FINGERS TOGETHER OF BOTH                                                                                         HANDS. FIRST, REST YOUR RIGHT HAND                                                                                           ON TOP OF THE LEFT AND THEN LEFT ON                                                                                         TOP OF THE RIGHT.

  (PRALAMBAM)                                                      TURN BOTH YOUR HANDS AND LET THE                                                                                           PALMS FACE DOWN. JOIN GENTLY AT THE                                                                                         TIP OF THE THUMBS.

 (MUSTIKAM)                                                           KEEP YOUR THUMBS OUT AND MAKE                                                                                                FISTS WITH BOTH HANDS.

(MATSYAH)                                                              REST YOUR RIGHT HAND ON YOUR LEFT                                                                                         (PALMS FACING DOWN). SPREAD YOUR                                                                                             THUMBS AND TWIDDLE YOUR THUMBS A                                                                                         BIT.

 (KURMAH)                                                             SPREAD YOUR LEFT HAND. TURN THE                                                                                               INDEX AND MIDDLE FINGERS KEEPING                                                                                             THE OTHER FINGERS EXTENTED. DO THE                                                                                         SAME WITH YOUR RIGHT HAND. NOW                                                                                               TURN  YOUR RIGHT HAND SO IT'S FACING                                                                                       DOWN AND LET IT REST ON YOUR LEFT                                                                                         WITH INDEX FINGERS, THUMBS AND                                                                                                 LITTLE FINGERS TOUCHING AT THE TIPS.                                                                                        THERE ARE OTHER WAYS OF SHOWING                                                                                            THIS MUDRA BUT THIS IS THE ONE I                                                                                                  PRACTICE AND GOT FROM MY GURU.

  (VARAHAKAM)                                                 GRAB FOUR FINGERS OF YOUR LEFT HAND                                                                                      (EXCEPT YOUR THUMB) WITH RIGHT,                                                                                                 MIDDLE, RING AND LITTLE FINGERS. JOIN                                                                                       THE TIP OF THE RIGHT INDEX FINGER WITH                                                                                     THE LEFT THUMB.

(SIMHAKRANTAM)                                             RAISE BOTH YOUR HANDS AS IN                                                                                                         BENEDICTION, THE BACK OF YOUR PALMS                                                                                     FACING YOU. (LIKE IN HANDS UP POSTURE)

 (MAHAKRANTAM)                                            KEEP THE SAME POSTURE BUT TURN YOUR                                                                                    HANDS SO YOUR HANDS SO YOUR PALMS                                                                                        ARE FACING YOUR EARS.

 (MUDGARAM)                                                   MAKE A FIST WITH YOUR RIGHT HAND AND                                                                                   THEN REST THE RIGHT ELBOW ON YOUR                                                                                         LEFT.

 (PALLAVAM)                                                      RAISE YOUR RIGHT HAND TO YOUR                                                                                                  SHOULDER IN BENEDICTION.

                                                                 STEP 23

                                                  OFFERINGS (UPCHARA)

                      MAKE FIVE OFFERINGS OF INCENSE, LAMP, ANYTHING EDIBLE, BETEL LEAF AND BETEL NUT. SAY, "OM SAMARPYAMI" IN THE END.

                                                                 STEP 24

                              INVOKE THE MANTRA (MANTRA SAMSKARA)

                    THE MANTRA OF GAYATRI WAS CURSED BY BRAHMA, VASISTHA AND VISHVAMITRA. THEREFORE, CHANT THE FOLLOWING MANTRAS SEVEN TIMES EVERY DAY BEFORE YOU DO THE MANTRA JAPA TO ABSOLVE THE MANTRA OF THE CURSE OF THE SAGES (SHAAP VIMOCHANA)

                                                             SANSKRIT 

                OM GAYATRIBRAHMETYUPASITA

                YADRUPAM BRAHMAVIDO VIDUH

                TAM PASYANTI

                DHIRAHSUMANASA

                VACAMAGRATAH

               OM VEDANTANATHAYA VIDDAHE

               HIRANYAGARBHAYA DHIMAHI

              TANNO BRAHMA PRACODAYAT

              OM DEVI GAYATRI TVAM

              BRAHMASAPAVIMUKTA BHAVA

                                                                               👀👀👀

          

SADHANA STEPS ( THE COMPREHENSIVE METHOD)

     

                                                                 STEP 16 

                                              TAKE THE VOW (SANKALPA)

  

                TAKE IT ONLY ON THE FIRST DAY OF YOUR SADHANA

                  1.... (YOUR FULL NAME) BORN IN ..... (STATE YOUR GOTRA. IF YOU DON'T KNOW YOUR GOTRA, SIMPLY SAY NARAYANA GOTRA FOR EVERYONE IS A CHILD OF THE DIVINE) ON .... (STATE YOUR DATE OF BIRTH) HEREBY VOW TO DO A PURUSHCHARANA OF ... (THE NAME OF YOUR MANTRA, LIKE GAYATRI, SRI SUKTAM, GURU MANTRA, ETC.) OVER THE NEXT ... (STATE THE NUMBER OF DAYS YOU'LL BE CHANTING THE MANTRA OVER, FOR EXAMPLE, 40, 90, 100, 300 AND SO ON) DAYS SO I MAY BECOME A WORTHY RECIPIENT OF YOUR GRACE AND ATTAIN THE DESIRED OUTCOME.

                                                              STEP 17

                                  MANTRA BREATHING (MANTRA SHVASA)

       

                     STARY BY COMPLETELY AND GENTLY EXHALING FROM BOTH NOSTRILS BEFORE YOU CAN BEGIN THE MANTRA BREATHING PROCESS BELOW:

                   WITH YOUR RIGHT THUMB, CLOSE YOUR RIGHT NOSTRIL AND BREATHE IN DEEPLY FROM THE LEFT. WHILE BREATHING IN, CHANT GAYATRI MANTRA.

                 NOW, LIFT THE THUMB FROM RIGHT NOSTRIL AND CLOSE YOUR LEFT NOSTRIL BY PLACING THE INDEX FINGER OF YOUR RIGHT HAND. EXHALE GENTLY. CHANT GAYATRI MANTRA WHILE EXHALING.

                 KEEP THE SAME HAND POSITION AND DEEPLY INHALE FROM YOUR RIGHT NOSTRIL NOW. CHANT THE MANTRA WHILE INHALING FROM YOUR RIGHT NOSTRIL.

                NOW, LIFT YOUR INDEX FINGER FROM THE LEFT NOSTRIL AND PUT YOUR THUMB ON THE RIGHT NOSTRIL TO CLOSE IT. GENTLY EXHALE FROM YOUR LEFT NOSTRIL AND CHANT YOUR MANTRA WHILE EXHALING.

                THIS IS ONE ROUND OF INHALATION-EXHALATION, WHICH INVOLVES INHALING FROM YOUR LEFT, EXHALING FROM YOUR RIGHT, INHALING FROM YOUR RIGHT AND EXHALING FROM YOUR LEFT.

                          (  DO THREE ROUNDS OF MANTRA BREATHING )

                                                                 STEP 18

                                               APPLICATION (VINIYOGA)

                 THE WORD VINIYOGA MEANS APPLICATION. UNLIFE SANKALPA, VINIYOGA IS CHANTED EVERY DAY THROUGHOUT YOUR SADHANA. USE THE FOLLOWING MANTRA WITH WATER IN YOUR RIGHT PALM :

            SAPTAVYAHRATINAM JAMADAGNI BHARADVAJA ASTRI-GAUTAMA

           KASYAPA-VISVAMITRA-VASISTHA RSAYAH

           GAYATRYUSNIGANUSTUBBRHATI-PA MKTISTRISTUBJAGATYACHANDADA MSI

           AGNI-VAYU-SURYA-BRHSPATI-VARUNENDRA-VISVEDEVA DEVATAH

           SARVAPAPAKSAYARTHE JAPE VINIYOGAH

  

                                                              STEP 19

                           PURIFICATION OF HANDS (KARA SHUDDHI)

                  CHANT THE FOLLOWING MANTRA AND SHOW THE APPROPRIATE MUDRAS TO PERFORM PURIFICATION OF THE HANDS. 

RITUALS CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES

 

                             

                            ❤ RITUALS, CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES ❤

                       IN INDIA RITUALS AND CUSTOMS ARE CLOSELY KNIT IN SOCIAL RELIGIOUS LIFE OF PEOPLE. HAVE YOU EVER THOUGHT WHY PEOPLE FOLLOW OR PERFORM ALL THESE SEEMINGLY COMPLEX RITUALS AND CUSTOMS? DO THEY SERVE ANY USEFUL PURPOSE FROM THE POINT OF UTILITY IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE? YOU MIGHT HAVE NOTICED THAT AT TIMES SOME PRIEST OR RELIGIOUS GURU ASKES THE FOLLOWERS TO PERFORM THESE RITUALS FOR SOME REASON OR THE OTHER. OFTEN PEOPLE PERFORM THEM ON THEIR OWN WITH GREAT ENTHUSIASM. LET US PAY SOME ATTENTION TO THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THESE GREAT ENTHUSIASM. LET US PAY SOME ATTENTION TO THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THESE RITUALS AND CUSTOMS. THERE ARE A WHOLE RANGE TO THE RANGE OF FUNCTIONS. HERE WE WILL DISCUSS A FEW FUNCTIONS  CONSIDERED IMPORTANT BY SOCIALOGISTS.

             👀  SOCIALIZATION : RITUALSS, CEREMONIES, ETC AS A SOCIALIZING FORCE. THEY BRING THE INDIVIDUALS WITHIN THE DEFINED SOCIETY AND INTEGRATES THEM.

             👀   SOCIAL CONTROL : RITUALS, CEREMONIES, ETC. ACT AS A SOCIALIZING FORCE. THEY BRING THE INDIVIDUALS WITHIN THE DEFINED SOCIETY AND INTEGRATES THEM.

             👀   SOCIAL CONTROL : THEY ACT AS INSTRUMENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL. THEY ARE LINKED WITH WORLDLY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT. THE PRIEST OFTEN CONTROLS SOCIETY BY ASKING FOLLOWERS  TO PERFORM THESE FOR SOME REASON OR THE OTHER. MANY A TIME MEMBERS OF A PARTICULAR COMMUNITY OR CASTE ARE ASKED TO PERFORM THESE TO CORRECT THE WRONGS (SINS) COMMITTED OR ELSE FACE EXCOMMUNICATION. IN SUCH A SITUATION THEY BECOME WEAPON OF SOCIAL CONTROL.

          👀  MERIT AND STATUS : AT TIMES THEY ARE PERFORMED WITH A VIEW TO GET SOCIAL PRESTIGE AND STATUS. LIKE PERFORMING SOME SACRIFICE OR CONDUCTING YAGNA ETC.

             👀   IDENTIFICATION : CERTAIN RITUALS ARE PERFORMED TO HAVE A SPECIFIC IDENTITY. PUTTING VERMILION BY MARRIED WOMEN OR CIRCUMCISION AMONG MUSLIMS OR PIERCING OF EARLOBES IN SOME COMMNITIES ARE A FEW EXAMPLES.

             👀    SPIRITUAL ADVANCEMENT : PERFORMANCE OF CUSTOMES AND RITUALS IS CLOSELY LINELY WITH PEOPLE'S DESIRE TO ACHIEVE SPIRITUAL SATISFACTION AND ADVANCEMENT. PRAYERS, PILGRIMAGE, FASTING, SACRIFICES AND VARIOUS FORMS OF WORSHIP ARE FOLLOWED FOR THIS PURPOSE. IT APPLIES TO ALL THE RILIGIONS AND COMMUNITIES.

  

            👀   NAMASKER/NAMSTE : THE MOST POPULAR FORM OF GREETING, ESPECIALLY THE ELDERS, IS TO SAY MAMASTE WITH THE HANDS JOINED AT THE CHEST LEVEL. IT IS ALSO USED AT THE TIME OF FAREWELL.

             👀  LIGHTING LAMP/DIYA : IN ALMOST EVERY INDIAN HOUSEHOLD, A LAMP/DIYA IS LIGHTED BEFORE THE ALTAR OF GOD IN THE MORNING. SOME PEOPLE LIGHT LAMP IN EVENING ALSO.

             👀   PROSTRATING BEFORE PARENTS AND ELDERS : INDIANS PROSTRATE BEFORE THEIR PARENTS, ELDERS AND TEACHERS BY TOUCHING THEIR FEET. THE ELDERS IN TURN PLACE THEIR HAND ON PROSTRATING PERSON'S HEAD AND BLESS HIM/HER.

           👀  DEATH CEREMONY : AFTER A PERSON PASSES AWAY, THE CREMATION IS DONE ACCORDING TO CERTAIN RITUALS. THE RITUALS CONTINUE A FEW DAYS AFTER THE DEATH. IN THE ABOVE LINES, WE HAVE MENTIOBED ONLY SOME OF THE CUSTOMES AND TRADITIONS OF INDIA. OTHER IMPORTANT OCCATIONS WHEN DIFFERENT CUSTOMES AND RITUALS ARE FOLLOWED ARE THE INDIAN FESTIVALS. COME AND VISIT INDIA TO KNOW MORE ABOUT THE OTHER FASCINATING ASPECTS OF INDIAN CUSTOMES AND RITUALS.

                                  ❤   INDIAN CUSTOMS AND RITUALS  ❤

                     INDIA IS A MELTING POT OF DIFFERENT FAITHS AND RELIGIONS. THE DIVERSE CULTURE OF INDIA MAKES IT THE MOST UNIQUE COUNTRY IN THE WORLD. CUSTOMS AND RITUALS ARE AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE INDIAN WAY OF LIFE. THESE CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS TRAVERSE THE BOUNDARY OF RELIGION, CAST AND CREED. CUSTOMS AND RITUALS OF INDIA ARE WHAT ATTRACT MANY TOURISTS TO THIS MYRIAD LAND.

                   ONE GETS A GLIMPSE OF THE CUSTOMS AND RITUALS IN INDIA AS SOON AS ONE IS WELCOMED IN TRADITIONAL INDIAN STYLE. 'ATITHI DEVO BHAVA' IS WHAT INSPIRES THE HOSPITALITY BUSINESS IN INDIA, WHICH IS WHAT REFLECTS THE MOST POPULAR CUSTOM OF INDIA. 'ATITHI DEVO BHAVA' MEANS THAT GUEST IS GOD AND SHOULD BE TREATED LIKE A DEITY. THIS IS WHAT IS EXPRESSED IN WELCOMING A GUEST WITH A GARLAND AND PUTTING VERMILION ON THE FOREHEAD OF THE GUEST. THERE ARE A NUMBER OF SUCH CUSTOMS THAT ARE PART OF INDIAN SOCIETY. EVEN THE TOURISM MINISTRY, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA HS LAUNCHED THE 'ATHITHI DEVO BHAVA' CAMPAIGN TO MAKE PEOPLE AWARE OF INDIA'S RICH CULTURAL HERITAGE AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF TREATING A TOURIST LIKE GOD.

                 INDIANS ARE STEEPED INTO VARIOUS CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. RIGHT FROM THE BIRTH TO DEATH, THERE IS HARDLY AND OCCASION THAT DOES NOT HAVE AN ELABORATE CEREMONY. SOON AFTER THE BIRTH OF A CHILD, AN ELABORATE CEREMONY TO NAME THE CHILD TAKES PLACE, WHICH IS MARKED BY CHANTING OF SLOKAS AND SINGING OF HYMS. WEDDINGS ARE GRAND AFFAIRS IN INDIA, AS THEY FOLLOW VARIOUS CUSTOMS AND RITUALS. SO, MANY FOREIGNERS COME TO INDIA TO MARRY IN INDIAN STYLE. RAJASTHAN IS THE PLACE THAT IS MOST POPULAR FOR ROUYAL WEDDINGS IN INDIA.

                EVEN CREMATION IS DONE ACCORDING TO RITUALS AFTER ONE PASSES AWAY. TAKING A HERITAGE TOUR TO INDIA IS ONE OF THE BEST WAYS TO KNOW MORE ABOUT THE FASCINATING ASPECTS OF INDIAN CUSTOMS AND RITUALS. FETIVALS ARE OTHER IMPORTANT OCCASIONS WHEN ONE CAN SEE DIFFERENT CUSTOMS AND RITUALS FOLLOWED BY PEOPLE. COME ON A FASCINATING JOURNEY TO THE MYRAID LAND OF DIFFERENT FAITHS AND UNIQUE CULTURES WITH HERITAGE IN INDIA.

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INDIAN FESTIVALS IN SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER, NOVEMBER

 

                                                      FESTIVALS IN INDIA

                                                            SEPTEMBER 

                  TARNETAR MELA (SAURASHTRA, GUJARAT) : IS AN EXCITING AND A UNIQUE FAIR HELD ANNUALLY AT TARNETAR IN SAURASHTRA. THE FAIR COINCIDES WITH THE FESTIVAL AT THE TRINETWSHWAR TEMPLE, CELEBRATING THE WEDDIND OF THE LEGENDARY MAHABHARAT HERO, ARJUNA WITH DRAUPADI. THE FAIR IS A KIND OF A MARRIAGE MARKET FOR THE LOCAL TRIBALS - THE KOLIS, BHARWADS AND RABARIS. THE TRADITIONAL COSTUMES, EXQUISITE JEWELLERY AND WONDERFUL TARNETAR"CHHATRIS" (UMBRELLAS) WITH INTRICATE EMBRODERY AND MIRROR ARE SOLD. AN ADDED ATTRACTION IN THE LIVELY FOLK DANCE PERFORMANCE SUCH AS - GARBA, RAS, HERO.

                                                                    OCTOBER

                   NAVRATRI (ALL OVER INDIA) : NAVRATRI IS THE LONGEST HINDU FESTIVAL THAT CONTINUES FOR NINE CONSECUTIVE NIGHTS IN PRAISE OF LORD RAMA. CONTINUOUS CHANTING FROM THE GREAT EPIC RAMAYANA, ALONG WITH EVENING PERFORMANCES FROM THE EPISODES OF HIS LIFE, IS HELD FOR NINE DAYS. IT IS A COMBINATION OF MANY CONCEPTS. IT IS BELIEVED THAT DURGA, THE GODDESS OF POWER AND VITALITY, HAS NINE FROM CALLED NAVADURGA AND ON EACH DAY OF THE NINE DAYS, SHE TAKES A NEW FORM, CALLED NAVADURGA AND ON EACH DAY OF THE NINE DAYS, SHE TAKES A NEW FORM, WITH AN ARSENAL OF WEAPONS, TO RIDE A LION AND FIGHT THE DEMON MAHISHASURA. VIJAYDASHMI OR DUSSEHRA, THE 10TH DAY, IS CELEBRATED WITH FEASTING AND REJOICING AS HER DAY OF VICTORY. LORD RAMA IS SAID TO HAVE WORSHIPPED THE GODDESS, SEEKING HER BELOVED IN ORDER TO OVERPOWER THE EVIL FORCE OF RAVANA, THE ABDUCTOR OF HIS BELOVED SITA. THE MOST JOYOUS CELEBRATION OF NAVARATRI IS SEEN IN GUJARAT, KARNATAKA, TAMILNADU AND BENGAL. EVERY NIGHT PEOPLE GATHER IN COURTYARDS TO DANCE THE DANDIYA RAAS AND GARBA, A COMMUNITY DANCE IN WHICH MEN AND WOMEN DRESSED IN FESTIVE CLOTHES, DANCE IN PAIRS WITH DANDIYAS OR PAINTED WOODEN STICKS.

                     

                             DURGA PUJA (BENGAL) : IS PERFORMED DURING THE NINE DAYS OF NAVRATRI. COMMUNITY PUJAS IN BENGAL ARE ORGANISED IN EVERY LOCALITY. FAMILIES VISIT EACH OTHERS TO SHARE FEASTS. ON BIJOYA DAY, THE IDOLS ARE TAKEN IN ELABORATE PROCESSIONS FOR IMMERSION IN THE RIVER OR THE SEA.

                     DUSSEHRA (ALL OVER INDIA) : IS CELEBRATED TO MARK THE HOMECOMING OF LORD RAMA. THE RAMLIA - AN - ENACTMENT OF THE LIFE OF LORD RAMA, IS HELD NINE DAYS BEFORE DUSSEHRA.

                      ON THE TENTH DAY, LARGER THAN LIFE EFFIGIES OF RAVANA, HIS BROTHERS MEGHNATH AND KUMBHKARNA FILLED WITH DIFFERENT FIRE CRACKERS ARE SET ALIGHT TO CELEBRATE THE VICTORY OF GOOD OVER EVIL. IN HIMACHAL PRADESH, A WEEK LONG FAIR AT KULLU IS A PART OF THE DUSSEHRA CELEBRATIONS. FROM THE LITTLE TEMPES IN THE HILLS, DEITIES ARE BROUGHT IN PROCESSION TO THE KULLU MAIDAN WITH LOT OF GAIETY, MUSIC AND COLOUR. THE PRESIDING DEITY IS LORD RAGHUNATHJI.

                MYSORE IS ILLUMINATED WITH LIGHTS FOR DESSEHRA. MAJESTIC PROCESSIONS, A TORCH LIGHT PARADE AND DANCE AND MUSICAL EVENTS ENLIVEN THE TRANQUIL CITY.

                 MARWAR FESTIVAL (JODHPUR) IS A FESTIVAL DEVOTED MAINLY TO THE MUSIC AND DANCE OF THE MARWAR REGION. THE FESTIVAL WAS ORIGINALLY KNOWN AS THE "MAAN FESTIVAL". HELD FOR TWO DAYS ON FULL MOON-SHARED PURNIMA, FORK ARTISTS BRING TO LIFE THE MYTH, LEGEND AND FOLKLORE OF THE AREA.

                                                            NOVEMBER

                    SHARAD PURNIMA : (ALL OVER INDIA) IS A HARVES FESTIVAL WHEN LAXMI, THE GODDESS OF PROSPERITY, VISITS ALL HOMES TO BRING FORTUNE AND GOOD LUCK TO ALL. KOJAGIRI, THE SPECIAL NIGHT, IS CELEBRATED WITH ICE-COLD, SAFFRON-FLOVOURED SWEET MILK, SHARED IN THE COOL MOONLIGHT. THE FULL MOON NIGHT IS CALLED NAVANA PURNIMA OR THE MOONLIT NIGHT FOR NEW FOOD. THE NEWLY HARVESTED RICE IS OFFERED TO THE GODS AND LAMPS ARE LIT BEFORE THE FULL MOON.

                 DIWALI : (ALL OVER INDIA) : THE FESTIVAL OF LIGHTS IS ONE OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL OF INDIAN FESTIVALS. IT COMES 21 DAYS AFTER DESSEHRA AND CELEBRATE THE RETURN OF LORD RAMA TO AYODHYA AFTER HIS 14-YEAR EXILE. HOMES ARE DECORATED, SWEETS ARE DISTRIBUTED BY EVERYONE AND THOUSANDS OF LAMPS LIT IN HOUSES ALL OVER THE COUNTRY MAKING IT A NIGHT OF ENCHANTMENT. DOORWAYS ARE HUNG WITH TORANS (A DECORATIVE GARLAND FOR THE DOOR) ARE DAWN WITH DIFFERENT COLOURED POWDERS TO WELCOME GUESTS. WORSHIP OF GODDESS LAKSHMI, THE GODDESS OF WEALTH, AND FIREWORKS AND FESTIVALS ARE AN ESSENTIAL PART OF THE OCCASION.

                GURU PURAB (NORTH INDIA) : THE BIRTH ANNIVERSARY OF GURU NANAK = THE FIRST GURU OF THE SIKHS WHO FOUNDED THE SIKH FAITH, IS CELEBRATED WITH GREAT FERVOUR. THE "AKHAND PATH" - RECITATION OF THE SIKH HOLY BOOK, GURU GRANTH SAHIB, IS HELD IN GURDWARAS ALL OVER THE COUNTRY. TAKING THE HOLY BOOK OUT IN PROCESSION, IS ALSO AN INTEGRA PART OF THE CELEBRATIONS. LANGARS (COMMUNITY FEASTS) ARE ORGANISED WHERE PEOPLE OF ALL CASTES SIT TOGETHER TO EAT AND SING HYMNS FROM THE GURU GRANTH SAHIB. THE CELEBRATIONS AT AMRITSAR ARE ESPECIALLY IMPRESSIVE.

               KA POMBLANG NONGREM : (MEGHALAYA) IS THE MOST IMPORTANT FESTIVAL OF THE KHASIS IN MEGHALAYA. THIS FIVE DAY LONG FESTIVAL, HELD ANNUALLY NEAR SHILLONG, IS AN OCCASION FOR THANKGIVING FOR A GOOD HARVEST AND THE TIME TO PRAY FOR PEACE AND PROSPERITY. KHASI MEN AND WOMEN, DRESSED IN TRADITIONAL SPLENDOUR, PERFORM THE FAMOUS NONGKREM DANCE.

             SONEPUR FAIR : (SONEPUR BIHAR) ASIA'S BIGGEST CATTLE FAIR IS HELD AT SONEPUR, ON THE BANKS OF THE RIVER GANGA. DURING THIS MONTH-LONG FAIR, CATTLE, DECORATED FOR THE OCCASION, SWARM THE VENUE.

                PUSHKKAR FAIR : (PUSHKAR, RAJASTHAN) IS HELD EVERY YEAR AT PUSHKAR, NEAR AJMER. THOUSANDS OF PILGRIMS COME TO BATHE IN THE HOLY WATERS OF THE PUSHKAR LAKE. TRADING OF CATTLE, CAMEL RACES AND DAZZLING DISPLAYS OF BANGLES, BRASSWARE, CLOTHES, CAME SADDLES AND HALTERS ARE THE MAJOR ATTRACTIONS OF THIS COLOURFUL EVEN WHICH LASTS FOR TWELVE DAYS.

               HAMPI FESTIVAL : THE MAGNIFICENT RUINED CITY OF HAMPI, ONCE THE CAPITAL OF THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE, COME ALIVE ONCE AGAIN DURING THIS LIVELY FESTIVAL OF DANCE AND MUSIC, HELD IN THE FIRST WEEK OF NOVEMBER.

      

                                                              DECEMBER

                   CHRISTMAS : ( ALL OVER INDIA) IS CELEBRATED BY THE CHRISTIANS AND NON-CHRISTIANS ALIKE WITH SPECIAL ENTHUSIASM. ALL THE MAJOR INDIAN CITIES WEAR A FESTIVE LOOK. SHOPS AND BAZAARS ARE DECORATED FOR THE OCCASION AND OFFER ATTRACTIVE BARGIANS. CAROL SINGING, GET-TOGETHER AND THE EXCHANGING OF GIFTS ENHANCE THE CHRISTMAS SPIRIT, CHRISTMAS PARTIES LAUNCH OF CELEBRATIONS FOR THE NEW YEAR, THUS RETAINING THE FESTIVE MOOD FOR AT LEAST A WEEK.

                     KONARK DANCE FESTIVAL : (KONARK, ORISSA) KONARK FESTIVAL IN THE SUN TEMPLE, KONARK, OFFERS AND UNFORGETTABLE EXPERIENCE EVERY DECEMBER 5TH. A HOST OF CELEBRATED DANCERS FROM ALL OVER THE COUNTRY PERFORM ON THE TEMPLE PLATFORM OR BEACH.

                THE SOUND OF GHUNGROO BELLS, FLUTE AND PAKHAUJ FILL THE AIR AND A MARVELOUS CRAFTS MELA, WITH A VARIETY OF HANDICRAFTS AND DELECTABLE CUISINE, ADDS TO THE FESTIVE MOOD.

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INDIAN FESTIVALS (APRIL TO AUGUST)

 

                              

                                                  FESTIVALS IN INDIA (APRIL)

 

                        GOOD FRIDAY (ALL OVER INDIA) IS OBSERVED ALL OVER BY THE CHRISTIANS. THIS IS THE DAY WHEN LORD CHRIST CRUCIFIED. THE CHRISTIANS OFFER SPECIAL PRAYER SERVICES IN THE CHURCHES.

                      EASTER (ALL OVER INDIA) IS A FESTIVAL OF REJUNCTION OF LIFE AND LIVING. ON THIS DAY, LORD CHRIST ROSE AGAIN AFTER HIS DEATH. CHOCOLATE EGGS, SMALL CHICKS OF COTTON WOOL AND ALMOND SWEETS ARE BOUGHT FOR CHILDREN, SYMBOLISING NEW LIFE. PRAYER SERVICES ARE HELD IN THE CHURCHES TO END THE MOURNING PERIOD.

                     BAISAKHI (PUNJAB) IS CELEBRATED IN PUNJAB WITH GREAT FERVOUR. IT WAS ON THIS DAY THAT GURU GOBIND SINGH FOUNDED THE KHALSA (SIKH BROTHERHOOD). THE HOLY BOOK OF THE SIKHS, GRANTH SAHIB IS TAKEN IN A PROCESSION, LED BY THE PANJ PYARAS (FIVE SENIOR SIKHS) WHO ARE SYMBOLIC OF THE ORIGINAL LEADERS. THE OCCASION IS MARKED BY LOT OF FEASTING AND MERRY MAKING. ALL NIGHT REVELRIES TERMED BAISAKHI DI RAAT (NIGHT OF FEASTING) OR BAISAKHI DA MELA (BAISAKHI FAIRS) ARE HELD, WHERE MEN AND WOMEN DANCE TO THE RHYTHMIC BEAT OF DRUMS.

                IN KERALA THE FESTIVALS IS KNOW AS VISHNU. A DISPLAY OF GRAIN, FRUITS, FLOWERS, GOLD, NEW CLOTH AND MONEY, IS VIEWED AS VISHNU. A DISPLAY OF GRAIN, FRUITS, FLOWERS, GOLD, NEW CLOTH AND MONEY, IS VIEWED EARLY IN THE MORNING TO ENSURE A PROSPEROUS YEAR AHEAD. KNOWN AS BIHU IN ASSAM, THE FESTIVAL IS CELEBRATED WITH LIVELY DANCES, MUSIC AND FEASTING.

                        GUDI PADVA OR UGADI (MAHARASHTRA, ANDHRA PRADESH AND KARNATAKA): MARKS THE BEGINNING OF A NEW YEAR IN MAHARASHTRA,  ANDHRA PRADESH AND PARTS OF KARNATAKA. GUDI PADVA IS CONSIDERED ONE OF THE FOUR MOST AUSPICIOUS DAYS IN THE YEAR WHEN PEOPLE START NEW VENTURES. IT IS BELIEVED THAT LORD BRAHMA CREATED THE WORLD ON THIS DAY AND SO HE IS WORSHIPPED SPECIALLY AT THIS TIME.

               LORD VISHNU TOO IS SAID TO HAVE BEEN INCARNATED AS MATSYA, THE FISH, ON THIS DAY. A GUDI (BANNER) WITH A SWASTIKA-MARKED POT AND SILK CLOTH IS RAISED TO ANNOUNCE VICTORY AND JOY. IT IS REMINISCENT OF THE VALIANT MARATHAS RETURNING HOME FROM THEIR SUCCESSFUL CONQUERING EXPEDITIONS OF WAR.

 

                       POORAM (TRICHUR, KERAL) AT THE BEGINNING OF APRIL, THE PEOPLE OF KERAL BEGIN THEIR SEARCH FOR THE BEST ELEPHANTS TO TRICHUR TO PARTICIPATE IN THE POORAM FESTIVAL. THE DECORATED ELEPHANT GROUPS FACE EACH OTHER WHILE DRUMS AND NADASWARAMS CREATE A CRESCENDO OF MUSIC. THE FESTIVAL ENDS WITH A SPECTACULAR DISPLAY OF FIREWORKS.

                     MUHARRAM (ALL OVER INDIA) COMMEMORATES THE MARTYRDOM OF IMAM HUSSAIN, THE GRANDSON OF THE HOLY PROPHET MOHAMMED, AND IS OBSERVED BY THE SHI'ITE MUSLIMS, WHO TAKE OUT PROCESSIONS OF COLOUFULLY DECORATED 'TAZIAS'. WHICH ARE PAPER AND BAMBOO REPLICAS OF THE MARTYRE' TOMB AT KARBALA IN IRAQ. THE PROCESSIONS ARE SPECIALLY IMPRESSIVE AT LUCKNOW. IN PARTS OF THE SOUTH, TIGER DANCERS - MEN PAINTED OVER WITH STIPES AND WEARING TIGER MASKS, LEAD THE PROCESSION.

 

                   BUDDHA PURNIMA (NORTH INDIA) THIS FESTIVAL WHICH FALLS ON THE FULL MOON DAY, COMMEMORATES THE BIRTH OF LORD BUDDHA. ALSO IT WAS ON THIS DAY LORD BUDDHA ACHIEVED NIRVANA  OR THE EXTINCTION OF SELF AND FREEDOM FROM THE CYCLE OF REBIRTH.

                MEWAR FESTIVAL (RAJASTHAN) : IS CELEBRATED IN UDAIPUR TO WELCOME SPRING. THE MAIN HIGHLIGHT OF THE FESTIVAL IS THE PROCESSION OF COLOURFULLY ATTIRED WOMEN CARRYING IMAGES OF THE GODDESS GAURI TO LAKE PICHOLA. FESTIVITIES INCLUDE JOYOUS SINGING, DANCING, DEVOTIONAL MUSIC CONCERTS AND FIREWORK DISPLAYS.

                                         THE FESTIVALS IN (MAY-JUNE)

 

                  URS (AJMER, RAJASTHAN) : THE URS ARE HELD EVERY YEAR AT THED DARGAH OF THE SUFI SAINT KHWAJA MOINUDDIN CHISTI, COMMEMORATING HIS SYMBOLIC UNION WITH GOD. PILGRIMS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD GATHER HERE TO PAY THEIR HOMAGE. QAWAALIS  (POEMS) ARE SUNG IN THE SAINT'S HONOUR.

                GANGA DUSSEHRA (UTTAR PRADESH) : IN THIS FESTIVAL TEN DAYS ARE DEVOTED TO THE WORSHIP OF THE RIVER GANGA. ACCORDING TO THE LEGENDS, GANGAVATARAM OR THE DESCENT OF THE GANGA, HAPPENED AT THIS TIME. DEVOTEES TOUCH THE RIVER WATER, BATHE IN IT, AND TAKE THE RIVER CLAY HOME TO VENERATE. IN HARIDWAR, ARATIS ARE PERFORMED AT TWILIGHT AND A LARGE NUMBER OF DEVOTEES MEDITATE ON HER SERENE BANKS.

                 HEMIS FESTIVAL (JAMMU & KASHMIR) : IS CELEBRATED AT HEMIS, THE BIGGEST BUDDHIST MONASTERY IN LADAKH TO MARK THE BIRTH ANNIVERSARY OF GURU PADMASAMBHAVA. SPLENDID MASKED DANCES ARE PERFORMED TO THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF SYMBOLS, DRUMS AND LONG HORNS. A COLOUFUL FAIR, DISPLAYING SOME BEAUTIFUL HANDICRAFTS, IS THE SPECIAL HIGHLIGHT OF THE FESTIVAL.

                                                        

                                             FESTIVALS IN JULY - AUGUST

                     RATHYATRA (ORISSA) - THIS SPECTACULAR CHARIOT FESTIVAL IS HELD AT THE FAMOUS JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI. IMAGES OF LORD JAGANNATH, HIS SISTER SUBHADRA AND BROTHER BALBHADRA ARE TAKEN OUT IN PROCESSION IN THREE CHARIOTS TO THEIR SUMMER TEMPLE FOR A WEEK. THE MAIN CHARIOTS IS 14 METERS HIGH AND 10 METERS SQUARE WITH 16 WHEELS. THE ROPES OF THE HUGE CHARIOTS ARE PULLED BY MILLIONS OF DEVOTEES WHO ALSO BELIEVE THAT THIS ACT BESTOWS SALVATION UPON THEM.

                   GURU PURNIMA (ALL OVER INDIA) 16TH JULY :  A SPECIAL WORSHIP IS PERFORMED ON THIS DAY TO ALL TEACHERS GREAT EPIC, MAHABHARATA, IS A PART OF THE CELEBRATION . ON THIS DAY STUDENTS VISIT THEIR ELDERS, TEACHERS AND GUIDES IN ORDER TO SHOW RESPECT TO THEM WITH GIFTS OF COCONUTS, CLOTHES AND SWEETS. THESE GIFTS ARE CALLED GURUDAKSHINA. DISCOURSES ARE HELD IN COMMUNITY GATHERINGS TO HEAR THE READINGS OF THE HOLY BOOKS, BHAGWAD GITA.

                                                                AUGUST

                    JANMASHTAMI (ALL OVER INDIA) 23RD AUGUST : THE BIRTH ANNIVERSARY OF LORD KRISHNA, THE INCARNATION OF VISHNU IS OBSERVED ALL OVER INDIA. IT IS CELEBRATED WITH GREAT FERVOUR AT MATHURA AND BRINDAVAN WHERE LORD KRISHNA SPEND HIS CHILDHOOD. NIGHT LONG PRAYERS ARE OFFERED AND RELIGIOUS HYMS ARE SUNG IN TEMPLES. SCENES ARE ENACTED FROM LORD KRISHNA'S EARLY LIFE.

   

                    IN MAHARASHTRA, EARTHEN POTS OF CURD AND BUTTER ARE HUNG HIGH UP OVER THE STREETS. YOUNG MEN ENACTING AN EPISODE FROM KRISHNA'S CHILDHOOD FORM HUMAN PYRAMIDS BY CLIMBING ON EACH OTHER'S SHOULDERS AND TRY TO BREAK THESE POTS.

                 ONAM (KERALA)  : ONAM IS KERALA'S MOST POPULAR FESTIVALS, CELEBRATED WITH GREAT ENTHUSIASM. IT IS PRIMILARILY A HARVEST FESTIVAL CELEBRATED WITH GREAT ENTHUSIAM. IS IS PRIMARILY A HARVEST FESTIVAL CELEBRATED TO WELCOME THE SPIRIT OF THE PIOUS KING MAHABALI FROM ETERNAL EXILE AND TO ASSURE HIM THAT HIS PEOPLE ARE HAPPY AND WISH HIM WELL. AT TRICHUR, CAPARISONED ELEPHANTS TAKE PART IN A SPECTACULAR PROCESSION. THERE IS ALSO A MAGNIFICIENT DISPLAY OF FIREWORKS. AT SHORANUR, APPRECIATIVE CROWDS GATHER ON THE GREEN WHERE COLOURFULLY DRESSED KATHAKALI DANCERS RE-ENACT THE WELL-LOVED STORIES OF THE EPIC HEROES AND VIRTUOUS WOMEN. ON THE SECOND DAY OF FESTIVAL, EVERY HOME IS LIT BRIGHT AND DECORATED IN PREPARATION FOR THE VISIT OF KING MAHABALI. GREETINGS ARE EXCHANGED AND LENGTHS OF AUSPICIOUS SAFFRON CLOTH ARE PRESENTED BY FRIENDS  TO ONE ANOTHER.

                   THE VALLUMKALI (BOAT RACE) IS ONE OF THE MAIN ATTRACTIONS OF ONAM, AND IS BEST SEEN AT ARANMULAI AND KOTTYAM. ABOUT A HUNDRED OARSMEN ROW HUGE AND GRACEFUL ODEE (BOATS). OARS DIP AND FLASH TO THE RHYTHM OF DRUMS AND CYMBALS IN EACH BOAT. THE SONGS ARE GENERALLY TOPICAL IN CHARACTER AND CONCERN PEOPLE WELL KNOWN IN MALABAR. ABOVE EACH BOAT GLEAM SCARLET SILK UMBRELLAS, THEIR NUMBER DENOTES THE AFFLUENCE OF THE FAMILY OWNING THE BOAT. GOLD COINS AND TASSELS HANG FROM THE UMBRELLAS.

                IN THE EVENINGS, GIRLS PERFORM THE KYEKOTTIKALI (THE CLAPPING DANCE) IN THE OPEN, DANCING AROUND THE TRADITIONAL BRASS LAMP. INTRICATE PATTERNS OF FLOWER PETALS ARE MADE ON THE GRASS FORMING A FLOWER CARPET FOR THE DANCE.

                NAG PANCHAMI (WEST BENGAL, MAHARASHTRA AND SOUTH INDIA) (SUDH) 4 TH AUGUST

                 NAG PANCHAMI IS THE FESTIVAL WHEN SNAKES, THE SYMBOLS OF ENERGY AND PROSPERITY ARE WORSHIPPED. IN MAHARASTRA, SNAKE CHARMERS GO FROM HOUSE TO HOUSE WITH DORMANT COBRAS ENSCONCED IN CANE BASKETS, ASKING FOR ALMS AND CLOTHING.  WOMEN OFFER MILK AND COOKED RICE TO THE SNAKES AND GATHER AROUND TO SEE THE SNAKES SPREAD THEIR HOODS TO THE TUNE OF THE PUNGI. CLAY SNAKES ARE BROUGHT HOME TO BE WORSHIPPED BY DAY AND IMMERSED IN THE SEA IN THE EVENING.

                  IN SOUTHERN INDIA, PARTICULARLY IN KERALA, SNAKE TEMPLES ARE CROWED ON THIS DAY AND WORSHIP IS OFFERED TO STONE OR METAL ICONS OF THE COSMIC SERPENT ANANTA OR SHESHA.

           

                   RAKSHABANDHAN (NORTH INDIA) 15TH AUGUST : THIS IS A HINDU SISTER'S DAY WHEN BROTHERS AND SISTERS REAFFIRM THEIR BONDS OF AFFECTIONS. SISTERS TIE COLOUFUL THREADS RO RAKHIS ON THEIR BROTHER'S WRISTS. THE BROTHERS IN TURN PROMISE TO PROTECT THEIR SISTERS AND GIVE THEM GIFTS.

 

                GANESH CHATURTHI (MAHARASHTRA, TAMIL NADU, ANDHRA PRADESH, KARNATAKA)

. GANESHA CHATURTHI IS AN IMPORTANT FESTIVAL IN INDIA, ESPECIALLY IN MAHARASHTRA DEDICATED TO LORD GANESHA, THE ELEPHANT HEADED GOD OF ALL GOOD BEGGININGS AND SUCCESS. IT IS BELIEVED THAT LORD GANESHA WAS BORN ON THIS DAY AND EVERY CHATURTHI IS CONSIDERED AUSPICIOUS. THOUSANDS OF CLAY IDOLS OF LORD GANESHA ARE MADE IN EVERY SIZE, POSE, FORM AND COLOUR AND WORSHIPPED AT COMMUNITY OR FAMILY FESTIVALS WHICH LAST BETWEEN ONE TO TEN DAYS. THESE IMAGES ARE THEN TAKEN IN LARGE PROCESSIONS, AMIDST THE RHYTHMS OF BELLS AND DRUMS AND IMMERSED IN FLOWING WATER.

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                                                                                 ❤❤❤

 

THE VEDIC PERIOD LIFE

 

                                            THE SHORT NOTE ON ARYANS

                       ARYAN IS AN ENGLISH WORD DERIVED FROM THE SANSKRIT "ARYA" MEANING "NOBLE" OR "HONORABLE". THE AVESTAN COGNATE IS "AIRYA" AND THE OLD PERSIAN EQUIVALENT IS "ARIYA". IT IS WIDELY HELD TO BEEN USED AS AN ETHNIC SELF-DESIGNATION OF THE PROTO-INDO-IRANIANS. SINCE, IN THE 19THE CENTURY, THE INDO IRANIANS WERE THE MOST ANCIENT KNOWN SPEAKERS OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE, THE WORD ARYAN WAS ADOPTED TO REFER NOT ONLY TO THE INDO-IRANIAN PEOPLE, BUT ALSO TO INDO-EROPEAN SPEAKERS AS A WHOLE.

                                                                            

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                   WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT LATER VEDIC PERIOD ?

                                                  LATER VEDIC PERIOD (B.C. 600)

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                    THE PERIOD BETWEEN B.C. 1000 AND B.C. 600 IS GENERALLY KNOWN AS LATER VEDIC PERIOD. THIS AGE IS ALSO CALLED AS THE EPIC AGE BECAUSE THE TWO GREAT EPICS RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA WERE WRITTEN DURING THIS PERIOD. THE ARYANS DURING THIS PERIOD MOVED TO THE GANGETIC VALLEY.

                       SOURCES : THE SAMA, YAJUR, ATHARVA VEDAS, BRAHMANAS, UPANISHADS, ARANYAKAS AND THE TWO EPICS ARE THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR THIS PERIOD.

                  POLITICAL LIFE : THE GANGETIC VALLEY OR ARYAVARTHA BECAME THE CENTRE OF POLITICAL ACTIVITY. KINGDOMS LIKE KOSALA, VIDEHA, KURU, MAGADHA, KASI, AVANTI AND PANCHALA CAME INTO EXISTENCE. THE POSITION OF THE KING WAS CONSIDERABLY HIGH. SABHA AND SAMITI DID NOT STAND IN HIS WAY. KINGSHIP BECAME HEREDITARY. THE KINGS WERE IN CHANGE OF DEFENSE AND MAINTAINING LAW AND ORDER OF THEIR KINGDOMS. THEY BUILD VAST EMPIRES. THEY TRIED TO EXTEND THEIR TERROTORIES. THEREFORE FREQUENT WARS WEE FOUGHT. RITUALS AND SACRIFICES SUCH AS RAJASUYA ASHVAMEDHA, VAJAPEYA AND YAGAS WERE PERFORMED BY THE KINGS. KINGS ASSUMED ASHVAMEDHA, VAJAPEYA AND YAGAS WERE PERFORMED BY THE KINGS. KINGS ASSUMED TITLES LIKE EKRAT SAMRAT AND SARIAHAUMA, VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION WAS LOOKED AFTER BY THE VILLAGE COUNCILS. TAXES LIKE PALL, SULK AND BHAGA WERE COLLECTED FROM THE PEOPLE. THE REVENUE WAS SPENT FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE SUBJECTS.

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                   SOCIAL LIFE : FAMILY CONTINUED TO BE THE BASIC UNIT OF THE SOCIETY. THE FATHER WAS THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY. JOINT FAMILY VEDIC PERIOD. TO START WITH THE FOURFOLD CASTE CAME INTO EXISTENCE, NAMELY, THE BRAHMINS KSHATRIYAS, VAISHYAS AND SUDRAS. THE BRAHMINS WERE PRIESTS AND TEACHERS. THE KSHTRIYAS WERE RULERS AND SOLDIERS. THEY ENJOYED HIGH POSITION IN THE SOCIETY. THE VAISHYAS WERE TRADERS, ARTISANS AND FARMERS. THE SUDRAS WERE THE UNEDUCATED WORKERS WHO SERVED FOR THE OTHER THREE CASTES.

                    ACCORDING TO THE RELIGIOUS TEXTS, THE LIFE OF AN INDIVIDUALS WAS DIVIDED INTO FOUR STAGES OR ASHRAMS THEY WERE BRAHMACHARYA OR STUDENT LIFE, GRAIHASTA OR LIFE OF A FATHER AND HUSBAND. VANAPRASTA OR LIFE AS A HERMIT AND FINALLY SANYASA OR TOTAL RENUNCIATION OF THE WORLD.

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                 POSITION OF WOMEN : THERE WAS A DECLINE IN THE STATUS AND DIGNITY OF WOMEN DURING THE LATER PERIOD. WOMEN WERE SUBORDINATED. SUBMISSIVENESS WAS CONSIDERED AS AN IDEAL VIRTUE OF A WIFE. WOMEM WERE NOT ALLOWED TO PARTICIPATE IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS. THEY COULD NOT OWN PROPERTY. CHILD MARRIAGE WAS NOT PREVENTED. WIDOW REMARRIAGE WAS NOT ALLOWED. THOUGH MONOGAMY WAS THE RULE, POLYGAMY WAS PRACTISED WOMEN DEGRADATION STARTED FROM THE VEDIC PERIOD.

                EDUCATION  : EDUCATION WAS LIMITED TO THE THREE UPPER CASTE. PUPILS STAYED WITH THEIR TEACHERS AT THE GURUKULA. WOMEN WERE NOT SENT TO THE GURUKULA. HOWEVER, WOMEN LIKE GARGI AND MAITREYI WERE EDUCATED. STUDENTS WERE TAUGHT PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, RELIGION, GRAMMER, ASTRONOMY, MEDICINE, ETHICS AND ARITHMETIC. DHANUR VEDA OR WAR TACTICS WAS TAUGHT TO PRINCES. PUPILS OBSERVED STRICT DHANUR VEDA OR WAR TACTICS  WAS TAUGHT TO PRINCES. PUPILS OBSERVED STRICT DISCIPLINE, OBEDIENCE, AND RESPECT WAS TAUGHT FOR THE TEACHERS. 

                                                   

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                   ECONOMIC LIFE : FARMING WAS THE CHIEF OCCUPATION, IRON WAS USED EXTENSIVELY IN THIS PERIOD. IRON PLOUGHS SUBSTITUTED THE WOODEN PLOUGHS. ANOTHER IMPROVEMENT OF THIS PERIOD WAS MATURING THE FIELD. IT INCREASED THE YIELD BARLEY, WHEAT, RICE AND DAL WERE PRODUCED. CATTLE REARING CONTINUED. WEALTH WAS CALCULATED IN TERMS OF COWS. NISHKA. SWARNA AND SATHAMANA WERE THE NAMES OF GOLD COINS IN CIRCULATION. COPPER PRODUCED WAR WEAPONS AND ORNAMENTS. THEY OBTAINED COPPER FROM THE KHETRI MINES OF RAJASTHAN. IRONSMITHS PRODUCED ARROWHEADS AND SPEARHEADS. THEY ALSO CRAFTED AGRICULTURAL TOOLS. WEAVERS, LEATHER WORKERS, CARPENTERS, CHARIOT - MAKERS AND JEWEL MAKERS ALSO LIVED IN THE VILLAGES. PEOPLE IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD USED PAINTED GREY MUD VESSELS. THE GRAY WARES WERE PAINTED. SUCH VESSELS HAVE BEEN FOUND IN MANY PLACES IN NORTH INDIA, ARCHAEOLOGISTS CALL THESE SITES AS "PAINTED GRAY WARE SITES".

                  BOTH INTERNAL AND FOREIGN TRADE FLOURISHED. MEDICINAL PLANTS, MEDICINE, CLOTHING'S AND LEATHER PRODUCTS WERE EXPORTED TO COUNTRIES LIKE BABYLONIA.

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                FOOD AND ENTERTAINMENTS : RICE, WHEAT, BARLEY, MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS, VEGETABLES AND FRUITS WERE THEIR DIET. FISH WAS ALSO EATEN. THE FLESH OF OXEN, SHEEP AND GOATS WERE EATEN SOMA AND SURA WERE THEIR COMMON DRINKS. INDOOR AND OUTDOOR GAMES WERE PLAYED DURING THIS PERIOD. GAMBLING, DICING, CHARIOT RACING AND HORSE RACING WERE SOME OF THEIR PASTIMES. THE PEOPLE WERE FOND OF MUSIC AND DANCE.

               DRESS AND ORNAMENTS : WOOLEN AND COTTON DRESSES WERE USED BY THE PEOPLE. ORNAMENTS MADE OF GOLD AND SILVER WERE WORN. THE OTHER METALS USED BY TE LATER VEDIC PERIOD WERE IRON, COPPER AND TIN.

                RELIGION : MANY CHANGES OCCURED IN THE FIELD OF RELIGION. THE GODS OF EARLY VEDIC AGE LOST THEIR SIGNIFICANCE. IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD, PEOPLE WORSHIPPED NEW GODS LIKE PRAJAPATHI, PASUPATHI, VISHNU AND KRISHNA, PRAYERS AND SACRIFIES BECAME IMPORTANT WAYS OF WORSHIPPING GOD. ANIMALS WERE KILLED DURING SACRIFICE. THE RELIGION BECAME COMPLEX AFFAIR. THE THEORY OF KARMA THE SUPREME HEAD AND HE WAS NOT ONLY A CREATOR BUT ALSO A DESTROYER. THEY BELIEVED IN THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA.

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