DETAILS OF WOOD CRAFT WORK IN INDIA

 

                             DISCUSS THE WOOD CRAFT WORK IN INDIA

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                     IN INDIA WOOD CRAFT CONTINUES TO BE DOMINATED BY THE EXPERTISE OF CRAFTSMEN. INTERVENTION OF MACHINES AND THE FACTORIES IN THIS FIELD IS STILL MINIMAL. LIKE THE POTTER ALMOST EVERY VILLAGE HAS ITS CARPENTER. THINGS MADE WITH WOOD ARE WIDELY USED IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE. IN CERTAIN REGIONS EVEN THE HOUSES ARE MADE WITH WOOD. WE MAY NOT BE ABLE TO GIVE YOU THE WHOLE RANGE OF WOOD PRODUCTS BECAUSE OF ITS WIDE PREVALENCE. HOWEVER, WE WILL TRY TO GIVE YOU THE IMPORTANT PRODUCTS AND LIST SOME SELECT CENTERS. HERE WE WILL ALSO INCUDE BAMBOO AND CANE WORKS.

                VARIETIES OF WOOD AND CANE WORK : THE MOST WIDELY USED ARTICLES OF WOOD ARE CERTAIN AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, CARTS, ACCESSORIES OF HOUSES AND MAKING THESE ITEMS. AMONG THE AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS PLOUGH IS MOST IMPORTANT. THESE ARE MADE IN VARIOUS SHAPES AND SIZES WITH A SMALL IRON PLOUGHSHARE. BULLOCK CARTS, THE MAIN CARRIES OF GOODS IN RURAL INDIA, ARE AS WIDESPREAD AS PLOUGH IN ALL THE REGIONS EXCEPT HILLS. THE WOOODEN DOORS AND WINDOWS ARE A REGULAR FEATURE. THE UNIQUE FEATURE IS BEAUTIFUL CARVINGS ON THESE WHICH ARE SPECIFIED TO DEVERSE REGIONS. IN SOME REGIONS THE WHOLE HOUSE IS MADE WITH WOOD WHILE IN SOME OTHER FLOORS OR ROOFS WITH SUPPORTING BRACKETS WITH DECORATIVE MOTIFS AND  CARVINGS ARE MADE. THE HOUSEHOLD FURNITURES FROM HUGE FOUR POSTER BEDS TO HUMBLE STOOLS HAVE A LARGE VARIETY, SHAPES AND DECORATIVE PATTERNS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY. UTENSILS, TRAYS, CUPS, BOXES, CHESTS, ETC. ARE MADE IN A VARIETY OF WAYS.

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                     THE DECORATION IS DONE MAIL THROUGH CARVING, POLISHING AND INLAY WORK WITH IVORY, BONE OR METALS. WOOD AND BAMBOO WORK IS ALSO PREVALENT THROUGHOUT THE LENGTH AND BREADTH OF THE COUNTRY. MOST IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF BAMBOO AND REEDS ARE MATS AND ROOF THAT CHINGS AND SCREENS (CHIK). BASKET, JARS FOR STORAGE, FURNITURE AND OTHER HOUSEHOLD ITEMS ARE ALSO MADE DEPENDING UPON THE AVAILABILITY OF THE RAW MATERIALS. TOYS AND DECORATIVE ITEMS ARE ALSO MADE .

                                                         MAIN CENTRES :

                        WOOD : IN GUJARAT THE USE OF WOOD IS MAE TO PROVIDE ELEGANCE OF HOUSE. DOORS, WINDOWS AND PILLARS ARE DECORATED WITH CARVINGS. BEAUTIFULLY PROJECTED BALCONIES ARE MADE WITH LATTICE (JALI) AND CARVINGS. SUPPORTIVE BRACKETS BETWEEN WALLS, ROOFS AND ARCHWAYS ARE MADE WITH WOOD AND DECORATED WITH VARIETY OF MOTIFS. IN THE REGION OF KUTCH THE DOORS AND WINDOWS OF HAVELIS ARE BEAUTIFULLY CARVED. HUGE IMAGES OF GOD AND GODDESSES IN WOOD ADORN OF THE HOUSES. KERAL ALSO HAS A TRADITION OF RICH USE OF WOOD IN THE HOUSES CALLED THARVAD.

                      IN TEMPLE AND CHURCHES, CEILINGS, PILLARS, DOORS AND WINDOWS HAVE REMARKABLE CARVINGS. THE TRADITIONAL HOMES OF NAIR COMMUNITY ARE FAMOUS FOR THEIR WOOD WORK DONE WITH BEST QUALITY TEAK WOOD. LARGE PILLARS IN CORRIDORS, WALL PANELLING, HEAVY DOORS STUDDED WITH BRASS ARE SOME UNIQUE FEATURES OF THESE HOUSES.

                    KASHMIR STANDS OUT AS A PROMINENT PLACE FOR THE WORKS OF WOOD. THE WIDESCALE USE OF WOOD FOR MAKING HOURSES DATES BACK 11TH AND 12TH CENTURIES. THE WALNUT CENTURY PALACE OF KING ZAIN-UL-ABDIN WAS ALMOST ENTIRELY MADE OF WOOD WITH BEAUTIFUL CARVINGS AND LATTICE WORK. HOUSE BOATS MADE OF WOOD IN ALL SHAPES AND SIZES ARE SPECIAL ITEMS OF KASHMIR. BOWLS, WALL PLATES AND A HOST OF DECORATIVE PIECES MADE OF WALNUT WOOD ARE PRIZED ITEMS. 

                   IN THE RAJOURI REGION OF KASHMIR, A LOCAL VARIETY OF WOOD CALLED CHIKRI IS USED. THIS GRAIN WOOD OF CRAM COLOUR IS USED TO MAKE COMBS, SPOONS AND TOYS OF WOOD ARE MADE. SAHARANPUR IN U.P. IS FAMOUS FOR WOODEN FURNITURES, SCREENS AND DECORATIVE PIECES. ACCORDING TO TRADITION, A FEW FAMILIES FROM KASHMIR HAVE SETTLED HERE AND GAVE IMPETUS TO THIS ART. HERE THE MAIN WOOD USED IS SHISHAM. INLAY OF BRASS, BONES AND IVORY (BEFORE THE BAN ON IT) IN WOOD IN A  SPECIAL FEATURES OF SAHARANPUR.

 

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                   IN THE SOUTH AVAILABILITY OF SANDALWOOD IN KARNATAKA HAS GIVEN RISE TO THE WOOD CRAFT. BEAUTIFUL CARVIGS ARE DONE HERE. LARGE STATES AND ELEPHANTS AND A HOST OF SMALL PIECES OF ART ARE MADE WITH THIS FRAGRANT WOOD. NEIGHBOURING ANDHRA PRADESH ALSO HAS A FLOURISHING WOOD CRAFT. HERE THE SANDALWOOD USED IS OF RED COLOUR (RAKTA CHANDAN). MADURA IS FAMOUS FOR THE USE OF ROSEWOOOD. THE FURNITURE AND SMALL DECORATIVE PIECES WITH BEST SAMPLES OF CARVINGS ARE APLENTY HERE. SOME OF THE BEST SPECIMENS OF WOOD WORK CAN BE SEEN IN THE DECORATIVE GATEWAYS IN A NUMBER OF TEMPLES IN THE REGION.

                   HOSHIAPUR, JALANDHAR AND AMRISTAR IN PUNJAB ARE KNOWN FOR FURNITURE AND CARVING IN LOW RELIEF CUT IN GEOMETRIC PATTERNS. RAJASTHAN IS ALSO FAMOUS FOR BOWL AND PLATES MADE WITH ROHIDA WOOD. THESE OBJECTS ARE PAPER THIN. HERE SOME FOLK FIGURES AND DEITIES ARE ALSO MADE. GOA ALSO HAS A GOOD OLD TRADITION OF RICH USE OF WOOD IN DECORATING HOUSES AND MAKING ELEGANT FURNITURE.

                  THE TRIBAL REGIONS IN INDIA ALSO HAVE THEIR SPECIFIC WOOD WORKS. SPOONS, BOWLS, SMOKING PIPES AND OTHER HOUSEHOLD ITEMS ARE MADE IN ABUNDANCE. NAGALAND IS ONE OF THE PROMINENT PLACE WHERE FINE WOOD-WORK IS DONE. ASSAM ALSO HAS THIS CRAFT WIDELY PRACTICED.

                  ANOTHER IMPORTANT SKILL IN THE ARE OF WOOD CRAFT IS THE WOOD LACQUER WORK DONE IN  BIHAR, ORISSA AND MANY PARTS OF THE SOUTH ESPECIALLY KARNATAKA.

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                BAMBOO AND CANE : THE TRIBAL SOCIETIES WITH THEIR DEPENDENCE ON THE FOREST PRODUCTS HAVE DEVELOPED THE ART OF USING BAMBOOS IN VARIOUS FORMS. IN THE NORTH EAST REGION OF INDIA, ASSA IS THE BIGGEST CENTER OF CANE FURNITURE. HERE THE CHAIRS, BASKETS, GARDEN SWINGS AND HOUSEHOLD ITEMS ARE MADE WITH CANE. A VARIETY OF BASKETS WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF CANE ARE MADE. MATS OF BAMBOO STRAPS ARE QUITE COMMON. IN MIZORAM LONG BASKETS WITH BROAD TOPS AND NARROW TAPERING BOTTOMS ARE MADE. WORKERS IN TEA PLANTATIONS OF ASSAM USE BAMBOO HUTS. SHITALPATI MATS ARE AN EXQUISITE VARIETY OF MATS MADE IN ASSAM. THESE ARE MADE WITH REEDS. BENGAL ALSO MAKES GOOD VARIETY OF MATS. IN TRIPURA THE FINE BAMBOO STRAPS ARE WOVEN IN MATS WITH THE HELP OF COTTON THREADS.

                  IN KERALA PLACE CALLED PATTAMADAI IS FAMOUS FOR FINE QUALITY OF MATTS. HERE THIN STRANDS OF GRASS ARE WOVEN WITH COTTON THREAD. ANOTHER FINE VARIETY OF MATS IN KERALA IS MADE WITH THE LEAVES OF SCREWPINE PLANT. THE DINING TABLE MATS AND COASTERS IN BRIGHT COLOURS ARE ALSO MADE HERE.

                THE BASKETS, HAND FANS AND GRAIN SEPARATORS OF SIKKI GRASS AND BAMBOO ARE MADE IN ALL PARTS OF NORTH INDIA. ANOTHER IMPORTANT ARTICLE MADE IN THESE REGIONS IS SCREEN OR CHIK MADE OF THIN AND THICK STRANDS OF BAMBOO. THE SCREENS MADE FROM THIN STRANDS IS USED IN DOOW WHILE THAT OF THICK FOR OUTDOOR USES. DELHI IS ONE OF THE MAIN CENTERS OF THESE SCREENS MADE WITH THE USE OF COTTOM THREADS.

                  IN KASHMIR THE BAMBOO REEDS AND A VARIETY OF WILLOW ARE USED FOR MAKING BEAUTIFUL BASKETS AND KANGRIS ARE MADE. THE TOWN OF CHINAR-E SHARIF IS THE MAIN CENTER OF KAGRI MAKING. IN LADAKH CONICAL-SHAPED BASKETS ARE MADE WITH WILLOW AND A LOCAL GRASS. MATS FOR FLOORS ARE ALSO MADE HERE. IN HIMACHAL PRADESH ALSO VARIOUS TYPES OF CANE BASKETS ARE MADE. TAMILNADU IS FAMOUS COR COLOURFUL MATS MADE WITH THIN STRANDS OF REED  AND GRASS. CHAIRS AND STOOLS MADE OF SARKANDA VARIETY OF REEDS ARE USED IN DELHI, HARYANA AND U.P. THESE ARE LOCALLY CALLED MOONDHAS. IN BIHA THE MITHILA REGION IS FAMOUS FOR A LARGE VARIETY OF BASKETS, FIGURES, MATS, ETC. MADE WITH A LOCAL GRASS CALLED SIKKI.

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                                                                        👀👀👀

THE INDIAN PAINTINGS

 

                                             INDIAN PAINTINGS HISTORY

                                  

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                        PAINTINGS AS AN ART FORM HAS FLOURISHED IN INDIA FROM VERY EARLY PERIODS AS IS EVIDENT FROM LITERALLY SOURCES AND ALSO FROM THE REMNANTS THAT HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED. MOVED BY THE CHARM OF NATURE AROUND HIM, MAN HAS EXPRESSED HIS APPRECIATION OF IT IN WORKS OF ART PRODUCED BY HIM. THIS GOES TO TIME WHEN HE WAS STILL A PRIMITIVE. ART HAS HAD A SOFTENING INFLUENCE ON HIM. THE EARLIEST PAINTINGS OF THE PRE-HISTORIC AGE IN THE CAVES ALL OVER THE WORLD GIVE US MAGNIFICENT EXAMPLES OF THE OBSERVANT EYE AND THE TRAINED HAND EVEN IN MAN'S SAVAGE STAGE. THE COLOURS CHOSEN, THE MOVEMENT PENETRATED AND THE EXPRESSION SUFFERED IN THE PICTURES REALLY MAKE US MARVEL EVEN IFALL OF THEM ARE NOT OF THE STANDARD OF THE PAINTINGS AT AJANTA. THE PRE-HISTORIC CAVE PAINTINGS IN INDIA GIVE US A PICTURE OF LIFE IN THOSE FAR-OFF DAYS OF EARLY MAN IN INDIA. 

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                  IT IS A GREAT AND TRUE EXPERIENCE THAT KALIDASS EXPRESSES, WHEN HE FEELS THAT EVEN THE HAPPISEST MAN IS ELATED WHEN HE SEES BEAUTIFUL THINGS OR HEAR MELODIOUS NOTES. THOUGH MUSIC, LIKE ART, DEEPLY STIRS THE HEART, IT IS THE IMPRESSION OF BEAUTIFUL FORM ON THE EYE THAT HAS AN EVENT GREATER EFFECT. WHILE IN CHINESE ART, THE DELINEATION IS AS THE EYE THAT HAS AN EVENT GREATER EFFECT. IT IS THE IMPRESSION OF BEAUTIFUL FORM ON THE EYE THAT HAS AN EVEN GREATER EFFECT. WHILE IN CHINESE ART, THE DELINEATION IS AS THE EYES, IN INDIAN ART, IT IS BOTH AS THE EYE PERCIEVES AND AS THE TOUCH FEELS. THE DEPTH OF THE FIGURE IS THUS INDICATED.

                                                                               ❤

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                   THIS IS CORROBORATED BY THE FACT THAT THE CONCEPT OF PORTRAYAL AS ITS BEST IN HIGH OR LOW, IS ARDHCHITRA AND THE PAINTING RESEMBLING SCULPTURE IS CHITRABHASA. THE TERM CHITRBHASA ITSELF INDICATES THAT THE AIMS IS TO PORTRAY SOME KIND OF MODELLING TO SUGGEST DEPTH. IN THE SIX LIMBS OF PAINTINS OR SHADANGA DESCRIBED IN VATSYAYAN IN KAMASUTRA, MODELLING IS GIVEN AS AN IMPORTANT LIMB, OTHERS ARE VARIETY OF FORM (RUPABHEDA), PROPORTION (PRAMANA), ON THE INFUSION OF EMOTIONS (BHAVA YOJANA) CREATION OF LUSTRE AND BID ESSENCE (LAWANYA YOJANA), PORTRAYAL OF LIKENSS (SADRISYA), COLOUR MIXING TO PRODUCE THE EFFECT OF MODELLING (VARNIKABHANG).

                   EMOTIONS PORTRAYED IN PICTURES ARE BEST ILLUSTRATED IN SUCH MASTER PIECES AS THE MOTHER AND CHILD BEFORE BUDDHA OR THE SUBJUGATION OF NALAGIRI FROM AJANTHA. THE FORMER EFFECTIVELY PRESENTS KARUNARASA, WHILE THE LATTER SHOWS FIRST BHAYANAK RASA IN THE STAMPEDE OF THE ELEPHANT NALAGIR AND SANTARASA WHERE THE FURIOUS ANIMAL LIES HUMBLE AT THE FEET OF THE MASTER. THE VISHNUDHARMOTTARA HAS SPECIALLY STRESSED SUGGESTION AS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN ART. DIFFERENT METHODS FOR SUGGESTING VARIOUS ASPECTS OF NATURE ARE HERE ENUMERATED.

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                              * PORTRAYING LOTUSES IN BLOOM AND RISHIS HURRYING FOR A                                       BATH TO SUGGEST DAY BREAK.

                              * PROWLING THEIVES AND AMOROUS DAMSELS GOING TO THE                                           PLACE OF THEIR TRYST FOR INDICATING NIGHT, LOTUSES AND                                       AQUATIC BEINGS FOR THE SENSATION OF WATER,

                             * OVERCAST SKY AND WHITE CRANES FLYING IN THE SKY TO                                                SIGNIFY THE RAINY SEASON,

                             * PLEASANT FLOWER DECKED FORESTS AND GARDENS TO RECALL                                   SPRING, 

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                      ALL THESE DEVICES ARE CAREFULLY FOLLOWED IN PAINTINGS AND ARE TO BE UNDERSTOOD IN ORDER TO FULLY APPRECIATE THE MEANING OF A PICTURE, SPECIALLY IN THE LATER - DAY MINIATURE PAINTING FROM RAJASTHAN, BARAMASA PAINTINGS AND THOSE PORTRAYING THE LOVES O THE NAYAKAS AND NAYIKAS.

                       THE SHORT NOTE ON MODERN INDIAN PAINTINGS

                  MODERN  INDIAN PAINTING CAN TRACE ITS ROOTS IN PRE INDEPENDENCE INDIA WHEN WESTERN INFLUENCES STARTED TO MAKE AN IMPACT ON INDIAN ART. A NUMBER OF INDIAN PAINTERS DREW INSPIRATION FROM THE WESTERN SCHOOLS AND USED WESTERN PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUE IN THEIR PAINTINGS. RAJA RAVI VARMA IS A PERFECT EXAMPLE OF SUCH PAINTERS. SOME PAINTERS LIKE JAMINI ROY MADE A CONSCIOUS EFFORT TO KEEP HIS PAINTINGS, IN BOTH FORM AND TECHNIQUE, AS ROOTED AS POSSIBLE.

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                 COLONIAL INFLUENCE IN MODERN INDIAN PAINTING

              AS STATED ABOVE, THE COLONIAL HANGOVER IN INDIAN ART WAS AN UNMISTAKABLE ONE, BUT YET THER WAS AN ATTEMPT TO INTERNALIZE THE MODERN TECHNIQUE AND USE THEM TO DEPICT INDIAN THEMES. THEREFORE, MODERN INDIAN ART CAN BE CALLED A PHENOMENON BECAUSE ALTHOUGH THE ARTISTS ARE STEEPED IN WESTERN MODERNISM, THEY ALSO RECOUNT THEIR CHERISHED STORIES, OR IMBIBE HINDU PHILOSOPHY IN THIER WORK.

                                    👀  THE POST INDEPENDENCE ERA 👀

                BY THE TIME THE INDIAN TRICOLOR WAS UNRUFFLED FOR THE FIRST TIME IN DELHI IN AUGUST 1947, SEVERAL ART SCHOOLS WITH FRESH AND INNOVATIVE IDEAS HAD BEEN ESTABLISHED IN INDIA. URBAN INDIA BOASTED OF GALLERIES FOR THE DISPLAY OF INDIVIDUAL ARTISTS WORKS. MAJOR ARTISTS LIKE RABINDRANATH TAGORE AND AMRITA SHERGIL WERE BEGINNING TO GAIN INTERNATIONAL REPUTATION.

                                   👀 THE PROGRESSIVE ARTIST'S GROUP 👀   

                    SHORTLY AFTER INDEPENDENCE, A GROUP OF YOUNG ENTHUSIASTIC PAINTERS DECIDED THAT THEY NEEDED NEW WAYS TO EXPRESS INDEPENDENT ARTISTS, NAMELY - K.H. ARA, S.K. BAKRE, H.A. GAGE, M. F. HUSAIN, S.H. RAZA AND F.N. SOUZA. THIS GROUP DIDN'T HAVE A VERY LONG RUN (IT WAS DISSOLVED IN 1956), BUT IS LEFT AN INDELIBLE IMPACT ON MODERN INDIAN ART.

                       👀 SOME IMPORTANT MODERN INDIAN PAINTERS 👀

                 MANY LUMINARIES CONTRIBUTED TO THE GROWTH OF MODERN INDIAN PAINTINGS, IT WILL BE IMPOSSIBLE TO ENLIST ALL OF THEM. LISTED BELOW ARE A FEW OF THEM.

                    ❤  JAMINI ROY JAMINI ROY'S   APPROACHABLE PAINTINGS ASSURED THAT HE FOUND A VAST ARRAY OF ADMIRERS. HE HAD BOTH BENGALI MIDDLE CLASS AND EUROPEAN CLIENTELE. HIS WORK WAS EXHIBITED IN LONDON. NEW YORK AND MANY INDIAN CITIES. THE UNMISTABLE INFLUENCE OF THE FOLK TRADITION IS TO BE FOUND IN HIS WORK THROUGHOUT HIS CAREER. IN FACT ONE CAN SAFELY SAY THAT IS WAS A HALLMARK OF HIS WORK. HIS AWE-INSIPIRING BODY OF WORK HAS MADE HIM ONE OF THE MOST INFLUENTIAL MODERN INDIAN PAINTERS.

                   ❤ NANDALAL BOSE     NANDALAL BOSE'S CREATIVITY SPOKE MANY LANGUAGES. IT WAS A BLEND OF INDIA'S ARTISTIC TRADITIONS AND SEVERAL CONTEMPORARY STYLES.THE SINO JAPANESE INFLUENCE (HIS INTERACTION WITH JAPANESE PAINTERS IN CALCUTTA PROVED  TO BE A FRUITFUL EXPERIENCE) GAVE COMPLEXITY TO HIS OTHERWISE SIMPLISTIC SOULFUL EXPRESSIONS. HE WAS ALSO ONE OF THE FEW PROMINENT ARTISTS TO PROJECT THEIRS WORKS ASA BACKLASH AGAINST THE COLONIALISM. BUT IT WILL BE UNFAIR TO TERM HIM AN "ANTAGONIST", FOR HIS WORKS WERE MORE OF AN ATTEMPT TO NOURISH INDIA'S FUTURE SENSIBILITIES WITH AN AWARENESS OF HER OWN HERITAGE AND THAT OF THE WORLD AROUND HER.

     

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                  ❤   AMRIT SHERGILL   AMRITA SHERGILL STUDIED ART IN PARIS AND SHE WAS AN ACCOMPLISH PAINTER, ACCOMPLISH IN ALL WESTERN PAINTING TECHNIQUE BEFORE SHE WAS EVEN TWENTY-TWO.

                    SHE RETURNED TO INDIA TO UNDERSTAND HER OWN ROOTS AND TO "PURSUE HER DESTINY AS A PAINTER". HER THEMES WERE VERY SENSITIVE TO THE CONDITION OF WOMEN IN INDIA. HER WORKS ARE VASTLY CELEBRATED ACROSS THE WORLD AND THEY FETCH MILLIONS OF DOLLARS IN VARIOUS AUCTION HOUSES. SHE IS WELL KNOWN FOR HIS PREOCCUPATION WITH THE FORMALIST MEANS OF EXPRESSION

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THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY

 

                                             THE CHARACTERISTICS OF 

                                      CASTE IN CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY

                             THE CASTE SYSTEM AMONG INDIAN CHRISTIANS IS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ASSIMILATION OF LOCAL HINDU PRACTICES, WHICH HAS CAUSED CASTED DISTINCTIONS TO BE RETAINED AFTER IN DIVERSE WAYS ACROSS THE SUBCONTINENT, OFTEN REFLECTING THEIR OWN STRATIFICATION BY SECT, LOCATION, AND THE CASTES OF THEIR PREDECESSORES. SOCIAL PRACTICES AMONG CERTAIN INDIAN CHRISTIANS PARALLEL MUCH OF THE DISCRIMINATION FACED BY LOWER CASTES IN OTHER RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES, AS WELL AS HAVING FEATURES UNIQUE TO THIS COMMUNITY. CASTE DISTINCTIONS AMONG INDIAN CHRISTIANS ARE BREAKING DOWN AT ABOUT THE SAME RATE AS THOSE AMONG INDIANS BELONGING TO OTHER RELIGIOUS. THERE EXISTS EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT CHRISTIAN INDIVIDUALS HAVE MOBILITY WITHIN THEIR RESPECTIVE CASTES. BUT, IN SOME CASES, SOCIAL INERTIA CAUSE OLD TRADITIONS AND BIASES AGAINST OTHER CASTES TO REMAIN, CAUSING CASTE SEGREGATION TO PERSIST AMONG INDIAN CHRISTIANS. ABOUT 60-80 % OF INDIAN CHRISTIANS ARE MEMBERS OF THE DALITS OR BACKWARD CLASSES.

                    THE NASRANI MENORAH, THE SYMBOL OF THE SYRIAN MALABAR NASRANI CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY IN SOUTH INDIA.

                     CASTE DISCRIMINATION IS STRONGEST AMONG CHRISTIANS IN SOUTH INDIA AND IS WEAK OR EVEN NONEXISTENT AMONG URBAN PROTESTANT CONGREGATIONS IN NORTH INDIA. THIS IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT IN SOUTH INDIA, WHOLE CASTES CONVERTED ENMASSE TO THE RELIGION, LEAVING MEMBERS OF DIFFERENT CASTES TO COMPLETE IN WAYS PARALLEL TO HINDUS OF THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM.

                    THERE ARE SEPERATE, SEAT, SEPARATE COMMUNION CUPS, BURIAL GROUNDS, AND CHURCHES FOR MEMBERS OF THE LOWER CASTES, ESPECIALLY IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. CATHOLIC CHURCHES IN INDIA ARE LARGELY CONTROLLED BY UPPER CASTE PRIESTS AND NUNS. PRESENTLY IN INDIA, MORE THAN 70 % OF CATHOLICS ARE DALITS, BUT THE HIGHER CASTE CATHOLICS (30% BY ESTIMATES) CONTROL 90 % OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCHES ADMINISTRATIVE JOBS. OUT OF THE 156 CATHOLIC BISHOPS, ONLY 6 ARE FROM LOWER CASTES. IN ADDICTION, IN ADDITION, DALIT BOYS ARE NOT ALLOWED TO BE ALTAR BOYS OR LECTORS. ACCORDING TO THE "POOR CHRISTIAN LIBERATION MOVEMENT", A CATHOLIE ORGANIZATION, THEY ARE NEGLECTED BY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY AND CONVENT SCHOOLS, AND THEY ALLEGE THAT THESE INSTITUTIONS SOLELY CATER TO THE UPPER CASTES. NO DALIT CATHOLICS ARE INVOLVED IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES OF INDIA, EXCEPT FOR A FEW WHO HAVE RECONVERTED BACK TO HINDUISM.

                    CRITICISM - MANY DALIT CATHOLICS HAVE SPOKEN OUT AGAINST DISCRIMINATION AGAIST THEM BY THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. A FAMOUS DALIT ACTIVIST WITH A NOM-DE-PLUME OF BAMA FAUSTINA HAS WRITTEN BOOKS THAT ARE CRITICAL OF THE DISCRIMINATION BY THE RUNS AND PRIESTS IN CHURCHES IN SOUTH INDIA. POPE JOHN PAUL 2 ALSO CRITICIZED THE CASTE DISCRIMINATION IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH OF INDIA WHEN ADDRESSING THE BISHOPS OF : MADRAS, MYLAPORE, MADURAI, CUDDALORE, AND PUDUCHERRY IN LATE 2003. HE WENT ON TO SAY, "IT IS THE CHURCH'S OBLIGATION TO WORK UNCEASINGLY TO CHANGE HEARTS, HELPING ALL PEOPLE TO SEE EVERY HUMAN BEING AS A CHILD OF GOD, A BROTHER OR SISTER OF CHRIST, AND THEREFORE A MEMBER OF OUR OWN FAMILY".

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THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY

 

                                    THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE IN

                                                   MUSLIM COMMUNITY

                     CASTE AMONGST THE MUSLIMS : ISLAM IS CLAIMED BY ITS BELIEVERS TO BE A RELIGIONS OF EQUALITY. WE FIND THAT THE QURAN RECOMMONDS THE EGALITARIAN PRINCIPLE BUT IN REALITY THERE ARE SOCIAL DIVISIONS AMONGST INDIAN MUSLIMS. THE MOST POPULARLY KNOWN DIVISION AMONG THE MUSLIMS ALL OVER THE WORLD IS THE DIVISION BETWEEN SHIAS AND SUNNIS. THEY HOLD DIVERGENT VIEWS AND INTERPRETATIONS OVER ISLAMIC TEXTS AND TRADITION. IN INDIA, A VAST MAJORITY OF MUSLIMS ARE SUNNI. APART FROM THESE KIND OF DIVISIONS THERE ARE ALSO OTHER KINDS OF SOCIAL GROUPINGS AMONG MUSLIMS IN INDIA, WHICH REFLECT THE INFLUENCE OF HINDU BELIEFS AND PRACTICES SPECIALLY THOSE RELATING TO CASTE SYSTEM. 

                        MUSLIMS IN INDIAN ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO MAJOR SECTIONS (1) THOSE WHO CLAIM TO BE THE DESCENDANTS OF EARLY MUSLIM IMMIGRANTS AND (2) THOSE OF INDIGENOUS ORIGIN WHOSE ANCESTORS WERE CONVERTED TO ISLAM. THE FORMER SECTION HAS OFTEN BEEN CALLED ASHRAF OR SHURAFA (SINGULAR SHARIF, ARABIC WORD MEANING HONOURABLE), WHILE THE LATTER SECTION DOES NOT HAVE ANY SPECIFIC NAME. IN BENGAL, IT WAS DESIGNATED AS ASHRAF (FOR CLEAN OCCUPATIONAL CASTES) AND ARZAL (FOR UNCLEAN CASTES).

                     HIGHER CASTE (ASHRAF) CATEGORY OF MUSLIM : IN THE MUSLIM SOCIAL HEIRARCHY, THE DESCENDANTS OF IMMIGRANTS FROM PERSIA, AFGHANISTAN, ARABIA AND TURKISTAN ARE RECOGNIZED AS THE HIGHEST CATEGORY OF MUSLIMS IN INDIA. THE INDIAN MUSLIM CASTE, KNOWN AS SAYYED, SHEIKH, MUGHAL, PATHAN COMPRISE THIS CATEGORY.

                    SAYYEDS ARE CONSIDERED TO HAVE DESCENDED FROM FATIMA'S LINE. SHE WAS THE DAUGHTER OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMED. A DIRECT DESCENDANTS OF THE PROPHET, SAYYED ARE ACCORDED HIGHEST SOCIAL STATUS AMONG THE MUSLIMS.

 

                   IN THE SECOND RANK OF SOCIAL HIERARCHY COME THE SHEIKH. THEY ARE CONSIDERED TO BE THE DESCENDANTS OF EARLY MUSLIM MIGRANTS OF MECCA AND MADINA. THE MUGHAL AND PATHAN SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ASHRAF RANK THIRD IN THE SOCIAL HIERARCHY OF MUSLIMS. BOTH ARE ALMOST EQUAL IN SOCIAL STATUS. THOSE WHO CAME TO INDIA WITH THE MUGHAL ARMIES AND SUBSEQUENTLY SETTLED HERE, WERE KNOWN AS THE MUGHAL. THEIR MAIN SUBDIVISIONS, BASED ON DIFFERENT ETHNIC AND TRIBAL ORIGINS ARE CHAGTAI, UZBEK, TAJIK, TURKMANS AND QIZILBASH.

                  THE PATHANAS ARE DESCENDANTS OF THOSE WHO MIGRATED TO INDIAN FROM AFGHANISTAN OR FROM THE PASHTO SPEAKERS OF THE NORTH WESTERN FRONTIER PROVINCE OF PAKISTAN. AMONG THE ASHRAF GROUPS ARE ALSO INCLUDED THOSE PSEUDO - ASHRAFS WHO CLAIM DESCENT FROM ONE OF THE ASHRAF CASTE. GHAUS ANSARI A LEADING SOCIALIST HAS GIVEN SEVERAL THROUGH THEIR CLAIMS TO AHRAF DESCENT. ANSARI HAS GIVEN A LONG LIST OF CERTAIN CASTES, MENTIONED IN THE 1931 CENSUS REPORT OF UTTAR PRADESH. THESE MUSLIM CASTES HAVE TRIED TO RAISE THEIR SOCIAL STATUS BY CLAIMING NEW SURNAMES AND ALSO CORRESPONDING HIGHER STATUS.

             

                         MUSLIM CONVERTS OF INDIAN ORIGIN : THE MUSLIM CONVERTS OF INDIAN  ORIGIN ARE GENERALLY KNOWN BY THEIR CASTE NAMES, IN THIS  GROUP ARE PLACED THREE DISTINCT GROUPS, NAMELY, CONVERTS FROM HIGH CASTE OF THE HINDUS, CONVERTS FROM CLEAN OCCUPATIONAL CASTES AND CONVERTS FROM UNCLEAN OCCUPATIONAL CASTES, SUCH AS, SCAVENGERS AND PEOPLE WORKING WITH LEATHER (TANNERS). IN THE SOCIAL HIRARCHY OF THE MUSLIMS IN INDIA, CONVERTS FROM HIGH CASTES OF THE HINDUS ARE PLACED BELOW THE RANK OF ASHRAF. MANY OF OTHER RAJPUT SECTS (I.E, BRACHES OF A FAMILY) IN NORTH INDIA HAVE MUSLIM BRANCHES, E.G, THE BAIS, BHATTI, BISEN, CHANDEL, BARGUJAR, CHAUHAN, PAWAR, RATHORE, TOMAR. SOMETIMES THESE GROUPS INTER MIX WITH HIGHER RANKING GROUPS OF MUSLIMS.

                    BY AND LARGE THESE CONVERTS STILL FOLLOW SOME OF THE HINDU PRACTICE, E.G, THEY DO NOT MARRY FIRST COUSINS, EITHER CROSS OR PARALLEL. ISLAMIC LAW ALLOWS THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN WHEREAS AMONG THE HINDUS OF NORTH INDIA, PROHIBITION REGARDING MARRIAGE EXTENDS TO DISTANT DEGREES OF KINSHIP RELATIONS BOTH ON THE FATHER'S SIDE, AS WELL AS MOTHER'S.

                  UNCLEAN ARE THOSE WHICH OCCUPY THE BOTTOM PLACE IN THE MUSLIM SOCIAL HIRERCHY. THEY ARE THE UNTOUCHABLE CASTES OF HINDUS WHO CONVERTED TO ISLAM AND HAVE RETAINED THEIR LOW STATUS AND POVERTY ALONG WITH THEIR OCCUPATION. THESE PEOPLE DO THE MENIAL TASKS, INCLUDING SCAVENGING AND SWEEPING.

                    CASTES AMONG THE MUSLIMS ALSO REFLECT THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM AMONGST THE HINDUS. THESE CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS BEING:

                       1. ENDOGAMY

                       2. OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALIZATION

                       3. HIERARCHICAL ORDERING

                       4. RESTRICTIONS ON SOCIAL INTERCOURSE AND COMMENSALITY.

                       MUSLIMS IN INDIA USE THE TERM ZAT (EQUIVALENT OF CASTE) TO EXPRESS THE PURITY OF DESCENT. THUS, ZAT IS PRIMARILY AN ENDOGAMOUS UNIT OF SOCIETY. THE HOUSEHOLDS BELONGING TO EACH ZAT IN THE VILLAGE CONCIEVE OF THEMSELVES AS A COLLECTIVITY AND DESIGNATE THEMSELVES AS BHAIBAND OR BIRADARI (LITERALLY CASTE BROTHERHOOD). THIS SOLIDARITY AMONG THE MEMBERS IS NOT MERELY A FICTIONAL MOTION, BUT REST ON DEMONSTRABLE KINSHIP LINKAGE.

                    THE BIRADARI RESEMBLES CASTE IN THE FEATURES OF ITS INNER STRUCTURE, E.G. MEMBERSHIP IS DETERMINED BY BIRTH AND THE GROUP BOUNDARIES ARE MAINTAINED THROUGH ENDOGAMY. AMONG THE ASHRAFS, THE CASTE BROTHERHOODS ARE SUBDIVIDED AGAIN INTO MARRIAGE CIRCLES TO PROVIDE A RESTRICTED CIRCLE IN WHICH TO CHOOSE A WIFE, WHEREAS THE BIRADARI GENERALLY FUCNTIONS FOR ALL CEREMONIAL INTERCOURSE, THE MARRIAGE CIRCLES WITHIN THE BIRADARI IS RESTRICTED TO THE CHOOSING OF WIVES. THE MUSLIM RAJPUTS ARE VERY ENDOGAMOUS BUT DO NOT MARRY FIRST COUSINS AS ASHRAF DO. OCCUPATIONAL CASTES LIKE QASAB (BUTCHER), MANIHAR (BANGLE MAKER) ARE ALMOST STRICTLY ENDOGAMOUS AND GENERALLY DO NOT MARRY OUTSIDE THEIR CASTE. THESE VARIOUS CASTES HAVE A DEFINITE PLACE IN THEIR LOCAL MARRIAGE AND IS RESTRICTED WITHIN THEIR OWN GROUPS. HOWEVER, THERE ARE NO RESTRICTIONS ON INTERDINING OR CONCEPT OF PURITY AND POLLUTION.

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THE CONCEPT OF CASTE

 

                         THE CONCEPT OF CASTE AND CHARACTERISTICS 

                                       OF CASTE IN HINDU COMMUNITIES

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                      THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM DESCRIBES THE SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL RESTRICTIONS IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, IN WHICH SOCIAL CLASSES ARE DEFINED BY THOUSANDS OF HEREDITARY GROUPS, OFTEN TERMED AS JATIS OR CASTES. WITHIN A JATI, THERE EXIST EXOGAMOUS GROUPS KNOWN AS GOTRAS, THE LINEAGE OR CLAN OF A PERSON, ALTHOUGH IN A HANDFUL OF SUB-CASTES LIKE SHAKADVIPI, ENDOGAMY WITHIN USED (E.G. BANNING ENDOGAMY WITHIN A SURNAME).

                     ALTHOUGH GENERALLY IDENDIFIED WITH HINDUISM, THE CASTE SYSTEM WAS ALSO OBSERVED AMONG FOLLOWERS OF OTHERS RELIGIONS IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, INCLUDING SOME GROUPS OF MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS. THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION HAS OUTLAWED CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION, IN KEEPING WITH THE SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES THAT FOUNDED THE NATION. CASTE BARRIERS HAVE MOSTLY BROKEN DOWN IN LARGE CITIES, THOUGH THEY PERSIST IN RURAL AREAS OF THE COUNTRY. NEVERTHELESS, THE CASTE SYSTEM, IN VARIOUS FORMS, CONTINUES TO SURVIVE IN MODERN INDIA STRENGTHENED BY A COMBINATION OF SOCIAL PERCEPIONS AND DIVISIVE POLITICS.

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                                          CASTE AMONG THE HINDU

                    THE VARNA AND JATI SYSTEM : THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM HAS BEEN IN USE FOR MANY YEARS. STILL TODAY THE VALUES OF THE CASTE SYSTEM ARE HELD STRONGLY. IT HAS KEPT A SENSE OF ORDER, AND PEACE AMONG THE PEOPLE. THERE ARE FIVE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF THE SYSTEM. BRAHMAN, KSHATRIYA, VAISHYA, SHUDRA, AND HARIJANS. WITHIN EACH OF THESE CATEGORIES ARE THE ACTUAL" OR JATIS WITHIN WHICH PEOPLE ARE BORN, MARRY, AND DIE. THEY ALL HAVE THEIR OWN PLACE AMONG EACH OTHER AND ACCEPT THAT IT IS THE WAY TO KEEP SOCIETY FROM DISINTEGRATING TO CHAOS. THIS SYSTEM HAS WORKED WELL FOR INDIAN PEOPLE AND STILL HAS A MAJOR ROLE IN MODERN INDIA.

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                                        THE CASTE SYSTEM IN HINDUISM 

                                

                  THE PATTERN OF SOCIAL CLASSES IN HINDUISM IS CALLED THE "CASTE SYSTEM". THE CHART SHOWS THE MAJOR DIVISIONS AND CONTENTS OF THE SYSTEM. BASIS CASTE IS CALLED VARNA, OR COLOR. SUBCASTE, OR JATI, BIRTH LIFE, RANK, IS A TRADITIONAL SUBDIVISION OF VARN.

                   THE BHAGAVAD GITA SAYS THIS ABOUT THE VARN AS :

                      * THE WORKS IN BRAHMINS, KSHATRIYAS, VAISHYAS, AND SHUDRAS ARE DIFFERENT, IN HARMONY WITH THE THREE POWERS OF THEIR BORN NATURE.

                     * THE WORKS OF A BRAHMIN ARE PEACE, SELF-HARMONY, AUSTERITY, AND PURITY, LOVING-FORGIVENESS AND RIGHTEOUSNESS, VISION AND WISDOM AND FAITH.

                     * THESE ARE THE WORKS OF A KSHATRIYA, A HEROIC MIND, INNER FIRE, CONSTANCY, RESOURCEFULNESS, COURAGE IN BATTLE, GENEROSITY AND NOBLE LEADERSHIP.

  

                     * TRADE, AGRICULTURE AND THE REARING OF CATTLE IS THE WORK OF A VAISHYA. AND THE WORK OF TEH SHUDRA IS SERVICE.

                     THERE ARE LITERALLY THOUSANDS OF SUBCASTE IN INDIA, OFTEN WITH PARTICULAR GEOGRAPHICAL RANGES, OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALIZATIONS, AND AN ADMINISTRATIVE OR CORPORATE STRUCTURE. WHEN MAHATMA GANDHI WANTED TO GO TO ENGLAND TO STUDY LAW, HE HAD TO ASK HIS SUBCASTE, THE MODH BRANIA, FOR PERMISSION TO LEAVE INDIA. (BANIA, MEANS, MERCHANT, AND GANDHI MEANS GREENGROCER - FROM GANDHA, SMELL, FRAGRACE, IN SANSKRIT - AND THAT SHOULD BE ENOUGH FOR A GOOD GUESS THAT GANDHI WAS A VAISHYA) SOMETIMES IS DENIED THAT THE VARN, AS ARE "CASTES" BECAUSE, WHILE TRUE CASTE, THE JATIS, ARE BASED ON BIRTH, THE VARNAS ARE BASED ON THE THEORY OF THE GUNAS (THE THREE POWERS MENTIONED IN THE GITA) . THIS IS NO MORE THAN A RATIONLIZATION. THE VARNAS CAME FIRST, AND THEY ARE BASED ON BIRTH. THE GUNAS CAME LATER, AND PROVIE A POOR EXPLANATION ANYWAY, SINCE THE GUNA TAMAS IS ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH TWICE BORN AND ONCE BORN, CASTE AND OUTCASTE, OVERLAPPING THE MOST IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL DIVISION IN THE SYSTEM.

                    NEVERTHELESS, THE VARNAS ARE NOW DIVISIONS AT A THEORETICAL LEVEL, WHILE THE JATIS ARE THE WAY IN WHICH CASTE IN EMBODIED FOR MOST PRACTICAL PURPOSES. JATIS THEMSELVES CAN BE RANKED IN RELATION TO EACH OTHER, AND OCCASIONALLY A QUESTION MAY EVEN BE RAISED ABOUT THE PROPER VARNAS TO WHICH A PARTICULAR JATI BELONGS. AS JATI MEMBERS CHANGE OCCUPATIONS AND THEY RISE IN PRESTIGE, A JATI MAY RARELY EVEN BE ELEVATED IN THE VARNA TO WHICH IT IS REGARDED AS BELONGING.

                 ACCORDING TO THE LAWS OF MANU, WHEN THE TWICE BORN COME OF AGE, THEY ENTER INTO THE FOUR ASHRAMAS OR "STAGE OF LIFE".

                1. THE FIRST IS THE BRAHMACHAYA, OR THE STAGE OF THE STUDENT (BRAHMACARIN). FOR BOYS, THE STUDENT IS SUPPOSED TO GO LIVE WITH A TEACHER (GURU), WHO IS A BRAHMIN, OR LEARN ABOUT SANSKRIT, THE VEDAS, RITUALS, ETC. THE DHARMA OF A STUDENT INCLUDES BEING OBEDIENT, RESPECTFUL, CELIBATE, AND NON-VIOLENT. THE TEACHER IS GOD. FOR GIRLS, THE STAGE OF STUDENTHOOD COINCIDES WITH THAT OF THE HOUSEHOLDS, AND THE HUSBAND STANDS IN THE PLACE OF THE TEACHER, SINCE THE BOYS ARE SUPPOSED TO BE CELIBRATE WHILE STUDENTS, GANDHI USED THE TERM BRAHMACARI TO MEAN THE CELIBRATE PRACTIONER THAT HE THOUGHT MADE THE BEST SATYAGRAHI, THE BEST NON-VIOLENT ACTIVIST.

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                             2. THE SECOND STAGE IS THE GARHASTYA, OR THE STAGE OF THE HOUSEHOLDER, WHICH IS TAKEN FAR MORE SERIOUSLY, IN HINDUISM THAN IN JAINISM OR BUDHISM AND IS USUALLY REGARDED AS MANDATORY, LIKE STUDENTHOOD, ALTHOUGH DEBATE CONTINUED OVER THE CENTURIES WHETHER OR NOT THIS STAGE COULD BE SKIPPED IN FAVOR OF A LATER ONE. THIS IS THE STAGE WHERE THE PRINCIPLE DHARMA OF THE PERSON IS PERFORMED, WHETHER AS PRIEST, WARRIOR, ETC, OR FOR WOMEN MAILY AS WIFE AND MOTHER. ARJUNA'S DUTY TO FIGHT THE BATTLE IN THE BHAGAVAD GITA COMES FROM HIS STATUE AS A HOUSEHOLDER. BESIDES SPECIFIC DUTIES, THERE ARE GENERAL DUTIES THAT PAY OFF THE "THREE DEBTS".

                             (1) A DEBT TO THE ANCESTORS THAT IS DISCHARGED BY THE MARRYING AND HAVING CHILDREN. (2) A DEBT TO THE GODS THAT IS DISCHARGED BY THE HOUSEHOLD RITUALS AND SACRIFICES, AND (3) A DEBT TO THE TEACHER THAT IS DISCHARGED BY APPROPRIATELY TEACHING ONE'S WIFE, CHILDREN, AND, FOR BRAHMINS, OTHER STUDENTS. THE THREE DEBTS ARE SOMETIMES ASSOCIATED WITH THE THREE GODS OF THE TRIMURTI - THE ANCESTOR DEBT WITH BRAHMA, THE GODS DEBT WITH VISNU, AND THE TEACHER DEBT WITH SHIVA.

                        

                             3. THE THIRD STAGE IS THE VARNAPRASTAYA, OR THE STAGE OF THE FOREST DWELLER. THIS MAY BE ENTERED INTO OPTIONALLY IF (IDEALLY) ONE'S HAIR HAS BECOME GRAY, ONE'S SKIN WRINKLED, AND GRANDCHILDREN EXIST TO CARRY ON THE FAMILY. HUSBANDS AND WIVES MAY LEAVE THEIR AFFAIRS AND POSSESSIONS WITH THEIR CHILDREN AND RETIRE TOGETHER TO THE FOREST AS HERMITS. THIS DOES NOT INVOLVE THE COMPLETE RENUNCIATION OF THE WORLD, FOR HUSBANDS AND WIVES CAN STILL HAVE SEX (ONCE A MONTH), AND A SACRED FIRE STILL SHOULD BE KEPT AND MINIMAL RITUALS PERFORMED. THIS STAGE IS THUS NOT ENTIRELY FREE OF DHARMA. THE FOREST TREATISES WERE SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN WRITTEN BY OR FOR FOREST DWELLERS. WHO HAVE MOSTLY RENOUNCED THE WORLD AND HAVE BEGUN TO CONSIDER LIBERATION. 

                   I AM NOT AWARE THAT FOREST DWELLING IS STILL PRACTICES IN THE TRADITIONAL WAY. THE MODERN ALTERNATIVES SEEM TO CONSIST OF THE MORE STARK OPPOSITION BETWEEN HOUSEHOLDING AND BECOMING A WANDERING ASCETIC. NEVERTHELESS, FOREST DWELLING IS AN INSTITUTION THAT DOESN'T REALLY DEVELOP AS SUCH IN JAINISM AND BUDDHISM. THE IDEA THAT HAUSBANDS ANS WIVES WOULD ENGAGE IN ASCETIC PRACTICES TOGETHER, WITHOUT CELIBRACY, WOULD APPEAR EXTRAORDINARY,. IN THOSE TERMS, IT IS AN UNFORTUNATE LOSS IF TEH INSTITUTION DOES NOT CONTINUE IN MODERN HINDUISM.

                         4. THE FOURTH STAGE IS THE SANNYASA, OR THE STAGE OF THE WANDERING ASCETIC, THE SANNYASIN (OR SADHU). IF A MAN DESIRES, HE MAY CONTINUE ON TO THIS STAGE, BUT HIS WIFE WILL NEED TO RETURN HOME, TRADITIONALLY SHE CANNOT STAY ALONE AS A FOREST DWELLER O WANDER THE HIGHWAYS AS AN ASCETIC. THE SANNYASIN HAS RENOUNCED THE WORLD COMPLETELY, IS REGARDED AS DEAD BY HIS FAMILY (THE FUNERAL IS HELD), AND IS FINALLY BEYOND ALL DHARMA AND CASTE. WHEN A SANNYASIN ENTERS A HINDU TEMPLE, HE IS NOT A WORSHIPPER BUT ONE OF THE OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. NOT EVEN THE GODS ARE SANNYASINS (THEY ARE HOUSEHOLDERS), AND SO THIS IS WHERE IN HINDUISM, AS IN JAINISM AND BUDDHISM, IT IS POSSIBLE FOR HUMAN BEINGS TO BE SPIRITUALLY SUPERIOR TO THE GODS. IT HAS LONG BEEN A MATTER OF DISPUTE IN HINDUISM WHETHER ONE NEED REALLY FULLFILL THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE LAWS OF MANU (GRAY HAIR, ETC). TO RENOUNCE THE WORLD.

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HORN WORK IN INDIA

 

                                                            HORN WORK

               HORN CRAFT IS THE RICH CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE ARTISANS OF PARALAKHEMUNDI, GAJAPATI DISTRICT OF ORISSA. ORIGINALLY CARPENTERS BY BIRTH AND TRADE, THEY TOOK TO HORN CRAFT DURING THE REIGN OF SRI KRISHNA CHANDRA GAJAPATI NARAYAN DEB, THE MAHARAJA OF PARALAKHEMUNDI.

               IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO TELL PRECISELY WHEN OR HOW THIS HANDICRAFT WAS BORN. IT IS BELIEVED THAT K.V. APPA RAO IS THE FATHER OF HORN CRAFT IN ITS PRESENT FORM. THE MAHARAJA PATRONIZED HIM FOR HIS FIREWORKS, FOR ONE PARTICULAR VARIETY OF WHICH THE HOLLOW PART OF A HORN WAS USED AS A CONTAINER. DURING THE FIREWORK DISPLAY, INCIDENTALLY DISCOVERED AN IMPORTATANT PROPERTY OF HORNS, ITS PLASTICITY. WHEN THE KING CAME ACROSS AN EXQUISITELY CARVED WOODEN CRANE, HE WAS INSPIRED TO GET A SIMILAR ONE MADE OF HORN. THE WORK OF THE ART CARVED BY HIM FROM THE SOLID PART A HORN HIGHLY PLEASED THE MAHARAJA. APPA RAO WITH HIS INNATE BUSINESS ACUMEN ASSESSED THE POTENTIALLY OF THE CRAFT AND SET UP A WORSHIP. EFFORTS WERE ALSO MADE TO INTRODUCE NEW DESIGNS AND MORE SOPHISTICATED TOOLS. THE VERY WORD PARALAKHEMUNDI BECAME SYNONYMOUS WITH HORN-CRAFT.

            HORN ARTICLES OF PARALAKHEMUNDI ARE MYSTICAL AND ARE BLENDED WITH A SUPERB FASHION DESIGN. THEY MAKE STYLISED BIRDS AND ANIMALS WHICH SEEM SO ALIVE, CRANES FOR INSTANCE, LOOK AS THOUGH IF THEY OPENED THEIR BEAKS, THEY COULD TALK,  OR THE BIRDS APPEAR TO BE TWITTERING, OR THE TIGER SEEMS JUST ABOUT TO JUMP ON YOU. LITTLE TOUCHES OF SILVER FILIGREE ARE ADDED TO THE HORN ARTICLE TO GIVE IT AN UNUSUAL LOOK, ALSO TO ITEMS LIKE BANGLES, PERFUME JARS IN CUTTACK HORN AND FILIGREE WORK ARE COMBINED TO PRODUCE DECORATIVE JEWELS, BANGLES, ETC. THE OTHER IMPORTANT CENTERS INCLUDE SARAI TARIN IN UTTAR PRADESH, HONAWAR IN KARNATAKA AND TRIVANDRUM IN KERALA. THE CRAFTMEN OF TRIVANDRUM ARE FAMOUS FOR MAKING DIFFERENT KINDS OF CRANE BIRDS IN HORN.

               PROCEDURE OF MAKING HORN ITEMS : COW HORNS, HORNS, STAG ANTLERS AND TUSKS ARE USED IN HORN CRAFT. THE DESIRED OBJECT IS CARVED FROM THE CARVED PIECE IS HEATED TO A SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE AND SHAPED. AFTER THAT, ITS SURFACE IS SMOOTHED DOWN WITH THE HELP OF A ROUGH FILE, FLATE FILE OR HALF ROUND FILE AND A SHARP STAINLESS STEEL BLADE RESPECTIVELY. NECESSARY BORES ARE MADE TO FIX APPENDAGES. IN THE PAST, EYES WERE  MADE OF THE STAG ANTLER STICK AT THE CENTER OF WHICH A BORE WAS DRILLED AND STUFFED WITH LACQUER BURNT IN A LUMINOUS FLAME. AFTER DRILLING BORES, LIGHT INCISIONS AND GROOVES ARE MADE IN THE REQUIRED PLACES ON THE BODY OF THE HORN WORK. AT THIS STAGE IT IS HANDED OVER TO THE WOMEN FOR POLISHING. THEY RUB THE ARTICLES FIRST WITH AN EIGHTY-COUNT SAND PAPER AND THEN WITH WET KHRSHANA LEAVES ONE SURFACE OF WHICH IS ROUGH. THE POLISHING IS CONTAINED TILL THE HORN WORK IS SMOOTH AND SHINY. THEN IT IS THOROUGHLY CLEANED WITH WATER AND DRIED IN OPEN AIR. AFTER DRYING IT IS FURTHER POLISHED WITH COW DUNG ASH OR CHARCOAL ASH AND THE VARIOUS PARTS ARE ASSEMBLED. 

                  APPLYING EITHER LIMESTONE PASTE OR WHITE VARNISH HIGHLIGHTS THE DESIRED AREAS. FINALLY COCONUT OIL IS SMEARED ALL OVER TO GIVE THE HORN WORK A BEAUTIFUL SHEEN.

                PEN STANDS, TABLE LAMPS, PAPER WEIGHTS, LAMP SHADES, SNUFF BOXES. WALKING STICKS, VERMILION CONTAIN ARE SOME OF THE MOST COMMON PRODUCTS. FISH AND FOWL, FLORA AND FAUNA, MEN AND WOMEN IN FACT, THE ENTIRE GAMUT OF CREATION IS RENDERED IN A NATURALISTIC MANNER. THE LEAST REMAINS INCOMPLET WITHOUT A MENTION OF THE HORN DEITIES, ESPECIALLY LORD JAGANNATH. IN KEEPING WITH CHANGING TIMES, INSPIRATION FOR DECORATIVE PIECES IS BEING DRAWN FROM MODERN ART AS WELL.

                   BONE CRAFT : IN ORISSA, BONE CARVINGS OF ANIMALS AND MITHUNA FIGURES ARE COMMON. CARVED OF BONES AND HORNS ARE A SPECIALITY. THE MOST IMPORTANT CENTERS INCLUDE SARAI TARIN IN UTTAR PRADESH, HONAWAR IN KARNATAKA AND TRIVANDRUM IN KERALA.

                  FINE ART OF BONE : THE DESIGN ON THE BONE CARVING ARE FLORAL AND FIGURATIVE BASED ON THE INSPIRATIONS FROM THE MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE AND FOLIAGE. INITIALLY ORNAMENTS WERE MADE OUT OF THE NATURAL BONES, BUT FOR THE PAST MANY YEARS BONE IS TREATED WITH MANY ATTRACTIVE COLOUS OF NATURAL STONES LIKE FEROZA, TOPAZ,QUARTZ ETC.

                 PROCEDURE OF MAKING BONE PRODUCTS : RAW BONE OF DEAD ANIMALS IS CUT INTO PIECES OF DESIRED SIZE AND IMMERSED IN WATER FOR 12 HOURS. THIS PROCESS SOFTENS THE BONE. LATER THESE PIECES ARE SCRAPPED AND CLEANED. THEN THEY ARE SHAPED TO A DESIRED OBJECT ON A LATHE. CARVING IS DONE WITH THE AID OF A FILE DRILL. CARVING THE CORE BLOCK. THE CRAFT MADE FROM IVORY SHELL ARE ALSO VERY FAMOUS.

                 HORN AND BONE ARTIFACTS : JEWELLERY, ORNATE TABLE LAMPS, CHESS-ETC, CIGARATTE HOLDERS, NAPKIN RINGS, SALT AND PEPPER SETS AND LAUGHING BUDDHA, TABLE-LAMPS, CHESS SETS, ANIMAL FIGURES, DECORATIVE PLAQUES, BRIDGES OF ANIMALS, PAPER CUTTERS, THE NATIONAL EMBLEM NAPKIN RINGS, SALT AND PEPPER SETS, TOOTH PICKS, HAIR PINS, BANGLES, LOCKETS, NECKLACES, FIGURES DEPICTING INDIAN DANCES ARE PRODUCED.

              SHELL WORK : SHELL CRAFT ARE IN GREAT DEMAND IN INDIA. IT HAS RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE. THE ORNAMENTS MADE OUT OF SHELLS ARE FAVOURITE WITH PEOPLE FROM ALL SHADES OF SOCIETY. SHELLS ARE THE MOST COLOURFUL AND FASCINATING OBJECTS KNOWN TO MAN OTHER THAN GEMS SINCE THEM IMMEMORIAL. THEY SERVED AS MONEY, ORNAMENTS, AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, DRINKING CUPS, IN MAGIC AND IN THE MAKING OF FINE PORCELAINS. THEY WERE ALSO THE SYMBOLOLS IN RITUALS AND RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES. SHELLS SUCH AS GIANT CLAM, GREEN MUSSEL AND OYSTER SUPPORT EDIBLE SHELLFISHERY, A FEW LIKE SCALLOP, CALM AN COCKLE ARE BURNT IN KILN TO PRODUCE EDIBLE LIME.

 

             CONCH SHELL WORK : THE CONCH SHELL IS CONSIDERED ESPECIALLY SACRED SINCE TIME MEMORIAL . IT IS ONE OF THE PRE-REQUISITIES IN RELIGIOUS PERFORMANCE AND THE BLOWING OF THE COUNCH HAS BEEN REGARDED AS AUSPICIOUS AT RELIGIOUS AS WELL AS SOCIAL FUNCTIONS. ITS SOUND IS SAID TO SYMBOLISE THAT OF THE COSMIC UNIVERSE. CONCH ORNAMENTS IN THE OLD DAYS WERE VERY POPULAR.

             THE ANCIENT CITY OF KORKALI, ON THE INDIAN SHORE OF THE GULF OF MANNER, WAS MADE SUP-CAPITAL OF THE PANDYAN KIND BECAUSE OF THE HEAVY REVENUES IT BROUGHT FROM THE SELLING OF CONCH SHELL. EXCAVATIONS HAVE REVEALED NUMEROUS CONCH SHELL PRODUCTS, INCLUDING SOME INCLAY WORK REQUIRING GREAT SKILL, EVEN BUILDINGS WERE DECORATED WITH CONCH PIECES. BANGLES AND OTHER KINDS OF ORNAMENTS ARE ALSO MADE FROM CONCHES. SHELL HORN IS THE WHOLE CONCH INTACT USED FOR RELIGIOUS PURPOSES. ON THIS, BEAUTIFUL RITUALISTIC DESIGN ARE MADE, MOSTLY FLORAL, SOMETIMES FIGURES , THE MOST POPULAR ONE BEING THE LOTUS, WHICH IS ALSO SYMBOLIC.

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