INDIAN FESTIVALS (JANUARY)

                               CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN FESTIVALS

                  INDIA IS A LAND OF FESTIVALS AND FAIRS. EVERY DAY OF THE YEAR THERE IS A FESTIVAL CELEBRATED IN SOME PART OF THE COUNTRY. SOME FESTIVALS WELCOME THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR, THE HARVEST, THE RAINS, OR THE FULL MOON. OTHERS CELEBRATE RELIGIOUS OCCASIONS, THE BIRTHDAYS OF DIVINE BEINGS, SAINT, AND GURUS (REVERED TEACHERS), OR THE ADVENT OF THE NEW YEAR. A NUMBER OF THESE FESTIVALS ARE COMMON TO MOST PART OF INDIA. HOWEVER, THEY MAY BE CALLED BY DIFFERENT NAMES IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE COUNTRY OR MAY BE CELEBRATED IN A DIFFERENT FASHION.

                                           INDIAN FESTIVALS JANUARY

                                                               JANUARY

                 MAKAR SANKTRANTI : (MAHARASHTRA, KARNATAKA  AND ANDHRA PRADESH) IS A CELEBRATION OF SPRING ON THE OCCASION OF THE 'ASCENT' OF THE SUN TO THE NORTH (UTTARAYANA). IN MAHARASHTRA, KARNATAKA AS WELL AS PART OF ANDHRA, MAKAR SANKRANTI IS A DAY OF GOODWILL AND FRIENDSHIP. SESAME LADOOS AND SUGAR DROPS ARE DISTRIBUTED AS A SYMBOL OF THE NEED TO BE GENEROUS AND KIND TO EVERYONE. WOMEN WEAR NEW CLOTHES, NEW GLASS BANGLES AND HOLD-GET-TOGETHER TO SHARE SWEETS AND GIFTS. A NEW BRIDE IS GIVEN ORNAMENTS MADE OF SUGAR DROPS AND HER NEW RELATVES ARE INVITED TO MEET AND WELCOME HER AT A HALDI KUMKUM CELEBRATION.

              LOHRI (PUNJABI) : IN THE NORTH MAKAR SANKRANTI IS CALLED LOHRI. IT IS THE ONLY HINDU FESTIVAL WHICH FALLS REGULARLY ON THE 14TH OF JANUARY EVERY YEAR. LOHRI IS THE TIME AFTER WHICH THE BITING COLD OF WINTER BEGINS TO TAPER OFF. ON THIS DAY THE CHILDREN GO FROM DOOR TO DOOR TO COLLECT FUNDS FOR COMMUNITY BONFIRES WHICH ARE LIT IN THE EVENING. LOHRI IS MORE OF A COMMUNITY FESTIVAL, WHERE THE BIRTH OF A SON OR THE FIRST YEAR OF MARRIAGE IS CELEBRATED FESTIVALS, WHERE THE BIRTH OF A SON OR THE FIRST YEAR OF MARRIAGE IS CELEBRATED WITH GREAT FUN AND FROLIC. PEOPLE GATHER AROUND THE BONFIRES AND OFFER SWEETS, CRISP RICE AND POPCORN TO THE FLAMES. SONGS ARE SUNG TO THE BEAT OF VIGOROUS CLAPS AND GREETINGS ARE EXCHANGED. 

                PONGAL : (TAMIL NADU, ANDHRA PRADESH): IN THE SOUTH SANKRANTI BECOMES PONGAL. IT IS A CELEBRATION OF THE HARVEST WHICH IS OBSERVED FOR THREE DAYS IN TAMIL NADU AS WELL AS IN ANDHRA PRADESH. THE FIRST DAY IS THE BHOGI PONGAL WHICH IS CELEBRATED AS A FAMILY FESTIVAL. SURYA PONGAL,THE SECOND DAY, IS DEDICATED TO THE SUN (SURYA) WHEN PONGAL (RICE COOKED IN MILK AND JAGGERY) IS BOILED BY WOMEN AND OFFERED TO THE SUN.  FRIENDS GREET ONE ANOTHER BY ASKING "IS IT BOILED"?, AND THE ANSWER IS GIVEN IS "IT IS". IT IS FOLLOWED BY GREAT REJOICING. MATTU PONGAL, THE THIRD DAY, IS A DAY DEDICATED TO THE WORSHIP AND VENERATION OF CATTLE (MATTU). THE PONGAL THAT HAS BEEN OFFERED TO THE LOCAL DEITIES IS GIVEN TO THE CATTLE TO EAT. THE CATTLE ARE BATHED AND DECORATED. COLOURED BALLS OF THE PONGAL ARE ALSO MADE AND LEFT IN THE OPEN FOR BIRDS. IN MADURAI, TIRUCHIRAPALLI AND TANJORE, A KIND OF BULLFIGHT, CALLED THE "JALLIKATTU" IS HELD. BUNDLES CONTAINING MONEY ARE TIED TO THE HORNS OF FEROCIOUS BULLS, AND UNARMED VILLAGER TRY OT WREST THE BUNDLES FROM THEM. WITH INGREDIENTS PROVIDED BY THE FRESHLY GATHERED HARVEST, COMMUNITY MEALS ARE HELD AT NIGHT.

                THAI PUSAM (TAMIL NADU) : THE FESTIVAL USUALLY TAKES PLACE IN THE TEMPLES DEDICATED TO KARTIKEYA OR MARIAMMAN WHERE TRENCHES OF BURNING COAL ARE LAID OUT FOR THE DEVOTEES TO WALK OVER. IT HAS BEEN SEEN THAT PEOPLE WHO VOLUNTEER TO UNDERTAKE THIS EXPERIENCE WITH FAITH, COME AWAY UNHARMED AND UNSCATHED. THE CHIEF PRIEST OF THE TEMPLE AND THE TWELVE "HERO-YOUTHS", WHO ARE TO PERFORM THIS FEAT, FIRST GO OUT IN A PROCESSION FROM THE TEMPLE TO BATHE, SMEAR THEMSELVES WITH TURMERIC, POWDER, AND BEGIN THE DANCE. THEN THE WALK OVER ALONG PIT COVERED WITH BURNING AND COME OUT UNSCATHED. THIS IS FOLLWED BY SINGING AND FEASTING WHICH CONTINUES TILL LATE NIGHT.

                 FLOAT FESTIVAL : (TAMIL NADU) : THIS MAGNIFICENT FESTIVAL IS CELEBRATED IN MADURAI ON THE NIGHT OF THE FULL MOON. THE ORNAMENTED ICONS OF THE TWO DEITIES, THE GOD SUNDARESA (INCARNATION OF SHIVA ) AND THE GODDESS MEENAKSHI (INCARNATION OF PARVATI), WITH PEARL CROWNS ON THEIR HEADS AND RIDING ON A GOLDEN BULL ARE TAKEN OUT IN A SPLENDID PROCESSION FROM THE MEENAKSHI TEMPLE. THE GOD ALAGAR (INCARNATION OF VISHNU) GIVES HIS SISTER MEENAKSHI, IN MARRIAGE TO SUNDARESA AMIDST GREAT REJOICING. DEVOTEES CLOTHED IN YELLOW AND RED DANCE AMONG THE PORCESSIONISTS AND SPRAY COLOURED WATER ON THEM. THE ICONS ARE FLOATED IN THE TANK ON A RAFT DECKED WITH FLOWERS AND FLICKERING LAMPS.

               NATIONAL KITE FESTIVALS (GUJARAT) : IN GUJARAT AND OTHER WESTERN STATES THE CHANGE IN THE DIRECTION OF WINDS ON MAKAR SANKRANTI IS MARKED BY THOUSANDS OF COLOURFUL KITES OF ALL PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS WHICH DOT THE BLUE SKY. THE KITES MEN VIE WITH EACH OTHER TO WIN COMMUNITY KITE-FLYING COMPETITIONS. THE KITES ARE HAND MADE AND THE THREAD IS GIVEN A COATING OF GLASS POWDER MIXED IN EITHER RESIN OR A PASTE MADE OF REFINED WHEAT FLOUR. THE DAY ALSO WITNESS KITE FLYING TOURNAMENTS IN WHICH HANDSOME CASH, CUPS AND SHIELDS ARE AWARDED AS PRIZES TO THE WINNERS. SPECIAL KITES WITH PAPER LAMPS FILL THE NIGHT SKY WITH MYRAID FLICKERING LIGHTS.

               KERALA VILLAGE FAIR : MID-JANUARY IS THE TIME FOR CULTURAL EVENTS IN THE LUSH VILLAGES AROUND KOVALAM, EVERY YEAR. TRADITIONAL THATCH HOUSES ARE DECORATED DURING THIS TEN DAY LONG FESTIVAL AND ARE THE VENUE FOR FOLD DANCES, MUSIC AND FESTIVALS.

             BIKANER FESTIVAL : THE FESTIVAL STARTS OFF WITH A MAGNIFICENT PROCESSION OF BEDECKED CAMELS. IT IS A COLOURFUL SPECTACLE OF BEAUTIFULLY DECORATED CAMELS THAT FASCINATES THE ONLOOKERS WITH THEIR CHARM AND GRACE. SEVERAL COMPETITIONS ARE HELD, MARKED WITH TYPICAL RAJASTHANI COLOUR, JOYOUS MUSIC AND LILTING RYTHMS AND GAY FESTIVITIES.

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MUSEUM HISTORY

 

                  

                      UNDERSTAND BY MUSEUM AND TYPES OF MUSEUM

           

                    A MUSEUM IS A 'PERMANENT INSTITUTION IN THE SERVICE OF SOCIETY AND OF ITS DEVELOPMENT, OPEN TO THE PUBLIC, WHICH ACQUIRES, CONSERVES, RESEARCHES, COMMUNICATES AND EXHIBITS THE TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE HERITAGE OF HUMANITY AND ITS ENVIROMENT, FOR THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION, STUDY, AND ENJOYMENT,' AS DEFINED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF MUSEUM. THE UK MUSEUM ASSOCIATION DEFINITION (ADOPTED 1998) IS :

                "MUSEUM ENABLE PEOPLE TO EXPLORE COLLECTIONS FOR INSPIRATION, LEARNING, AND ENJOYMENT. THEY ARE INSTITUTIONS THAT COLLECT, SAFEGUARD AND MAKE ACCESSIBLE ARTIFACTS AND SPECIMENS, WHICH THEY HOLD IN TRUST FOR SOCIETY". THERE ARE TEN OF THOUSANDS OF MUSEUMS ALL OVER THE WORLD. THERE ARE VERY MANY TYPES OF MUSEUMS, FROM VERY LARGE COLLECTIONS IN MAJOR CITIES, COVERING MANY OF THE CATEGORIES BELOW, TO VERY SMALL MUSEUM COVERING EITHER A PARTICULAR LOCATION IN A GENERAL WAY, OR A PARTICULAR SUBJECT, SUCH AN INDIVIDUAL NOTABLE PERSON.

                  CATEGORIES INCLUDE: FINE ARTS, APPLIED ARTS, CRAFT, ARCHAEOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, AND ETHNOLOGY, HISTORY, CULTURAL HISTORY, MILITARY HISTORY, SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, CHILDREN'S MUSEUMS, NATURAL HISTORY, NUMISMATICS, BOTANICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS AND PHILATELY. WITHIN THESE CATEGORIES MANY MUSEUM SPECIALIZE FURTHER, E.G. MUSEUMS OF MODERN ART, LOCAL HISTORY, AVIATION HISTORY, AGRICULTURE OR GEOLOGY. A MUSEUM NORMALLY HOUSES A CORE COLLECTION OF IMPORTANT SELECTED OBJECTS IN ITS FIELD. OBJECTS ARE FORMALLY OCCASIONED BY BEING REGISTERED IN THE MUSEUM'S COLLECTION WITH AN ARTIFACT NUMBER AND DETAIL RECORDED ABOUT THEIR PROVENANCE. THE PERSONS IN CHARGE OF THE COLLECTION AND OF THE EXHIBITS ARE KNOWN AS CURATORS.

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                   ART MUSEUMS : AN ART MUSEUM, ALSO KNOWN AS AN ART GALLERY, IN A SPACE FOR THE EXIBITION OF ART, USUALLY VISUAL ART, AND USUALLY PRIMILARILY PAINTINGS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND SCULPTURE. COLLECTIONS OF DRAWINGS AND OLD MASTER PRINTS ARE OFTEN NOT DISPLAYED ON THE WALLS, BUT KEPT IN A PRINT ROOM. THERE MAY BE COLLECTIONS OF APPLIED ART, INCLUDING CERAMICS, METALWORKS, FURNITURE, ARTIST'S BOOKS AND OTHER TYPES OF OBJECT.

                  THE FIRST PUBLICITY OWNED MUSEUM IN EUROPE WAS THE AMERBACH-CABINET IN BASEL, ORIGINALLY A PRIVATE COLLECTION SOLD TO THE CITY IN 1661 AND PUBLIC SINCE 1671 (NOW KUNSTMUSEUM BASEL). THE UFFIZI GALLERY IN FLORENCE WAS INITIALLY CONCEIVED AS A PALACE  FOR THE OFFICES OF FLORENTIAN MAGISTRATES (HENCE THE NAME), IT LATER EVOLVED INTO A DISPLAY PLACE FOR MANY OF THE PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURE COLLECTED BY THE MEDICI FAMILY OR COMMISSIONED BY THEM. AFTER THE HOUSE OF MEDICI WAS EXTINGUISHED, THE ART TREASURES REMAINED IN FLORENCE, FORMING ONE OF THE FIRST MODERN MUSEUMS. THE GALLERY HAD BEEN OPEN TO VISITORS BY REQUEST SINCE THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, AND IN 1765 IT WAS OFFICIALLY OPENED TO THE PUBLIC.

          

                   ANOTHER EARLY PUBLIC MUSEUM WAS THE BRITISH MUSEUM IN LONDON, WHICH OPENED TO THE PUBLIC IN 1959. IT WAS A "UNIVERSAL MUSEUM" WITH VERY VARIED COLLECTIONS COVERING ART, APPLIED ART, ARCHAOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, HISTORY, AND SCIENCE, AND A LIBERARY. THE SCIENCE COLLECTIONS, LIBRARY, PAINTINGS AND MODERN SCULPTURE HAVE SINCE BEEN FOUND SEPARATE HOMES, LEAVING HISTORY, ARCHAOLOGY, NON-EUROPEAN AND PRE-RENAINSSANCE ART, AND PRINTS AND DRAWINGS. 

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                  THE SPECIALISED ART MUSEUM IS CONSIDERED A FAIRLY MODERN INVENTION, THE FIRST BEING THE HERMITAGE IN SAINT PETERSBURG WHICH WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1764. THE LOUVRE IN PARIS, FRANCE WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1793, SOON AFTER THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WHEN THE ROYAL TREASURES WERE DECLARED FOR THE PEOPLE. THE CZARTORYSKI MUSEUM IN ERAKOW WAS ESTABLISED IN 1796 BY PRINCESS LZABELA CZATORYSKA. THIS SHOWED THE BEGINNINGS OF REMOVING ART COLLECTIONS FROM THE PRIVATE DOMAIN OF ARISTOCRACY AND THE WEALTHY INTO THE PUBLIC SPHERE, WHERE THEY WERE SEEN AS SITES FOR EDUCATING THE MASSES IN TASTE AND CULTURAL REFINEMENT.

               HISTORY MESEUMS COVER THE KNOWLEDGE OF HISTORY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE PRESENT AND FUTURE. SOME COVER SPECIALIZED CURATORIAL ASPECTS OF HISTORY OR A PARTICULAR LOCALTY, OTHERS ARE MORE GENERAL. SUCH MUSEUMS CONTAIN A WIDE RANGE OF OBJECTS, INCLUDING DOCUMENTS, ARTIFACTS OF ALL KINDS, ART, ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBJECTS. ANTIQUITIES MUSEUMS SPECIALIZE IN MORE ARCHEOLOGICAL FINDINGS.

                 THE COMMON TYPE OF HISTORY MUSEUM IS A HISTORIC HOUSE. A HISTORIC HOUSE MAY BE A BUILDING OF SPECIAL ARCHETECHTURAL INTEREST, THE BIRTH PLACE OR HOME OF A FAMOUS PERSON, OR A HOUSE WITH AN INTESRESTING HISTORY. HISTORIC SITES CAN ALSO BEOME MUSEUMS, PARTICULARLY THOSE THAT MARK PUBLIC CRIMES, SUCH AS TUOL SLENG OR ROBBERN ISLAND. ANOTHER TYPE OF HISTORY MUSEUM IS A LIVING MUSEUM. A LIVING MUSEUM IS WHERE PEOPLE RECREATE A TIME PERIOD TO THE FULLEST EXTENT, INCLUDING BUILDINGS, CLOTHES AND LANGUAGE. IT IS A SIMILAR TO HISTORICAL REENACTMENT.

                   MARITIME MUSEUMS : MARITIME MUSEUMS SPECIALIZE INT HE DISPLAY OF OBJECTS RELATING TO SHIPS AND TRAVEL SEAS AND LAKES. THEY MAY INCLUDE A HISTORIC SHIP (OR A REPLICA) MADE ACCESSIBLE AS A MUSEUM SHIP.

                     MOBILE MUSEUM : MOBILE MUSEUM IS A TERM APPLIED TO MUSEUMS THAT MAKE EXHIBITIONS FROM A VEHICLE, SUCH AS A VAN. SOME INTITUTIONS, SUCH AS ST.VITAL HISTORICAL SOCIETY AND THE WALKER ART CERTER, USE THE TERM TO REFER TO A PORTION OF THEIR COLLECTION THAT TRAVELS TO SITES AWAY FROM THE MUSEUM FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES. OTHER MOBILE MUSEUMS HAVE NO "HOME SITE" AND USE TRAVEL AS THEIR EXCLUSIVE MEANS OR PRESENTATION.

 

                  NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS : MUSEUMS OF NATURAL HISTORY AND NATURAL SCIENCE TYPICALLY EXHIBIT OF THE NATURAL WORLD. THE FOCUS LIES ON NATURE AND CULTURE. EXHIBITIONS MAY EDUCATE THE MASSES ABOUT DINOSAURS, ANCIENT HISTORY, AND ANTHROPOLOGY. EVOLUTION, ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, AND BIODIVERSITY ARE MAJOR AREAS IN NATURAL SCIENCE MUSEUMS. NOTABLE MUSUEMS OF THIS TYPE INCLUDE THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM NATIONAL D' HISTOIRE NATURELLE IN PARIS, THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION'S NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN WASHINGTON, D.C, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN NEW YORK CITY, THE ROYAL TYRRELL MUSEUM OF PALAEONTOLOGY IN DRUMHELLER, ALBERTA, AND THE FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN CHICAGO.

                      OPEN AIR MUSEUM : OPEN AIR MUSEUM COLLECT AND RE-ERECT OLD BUILDINGS AT LARGE OUTDOOR SITES, USUALLY IN SETTINGS OF RE-CREATED LANDSCAPE OF THE PAST. THE FIRST ONE WAS KING FOLKESMUSEUM. IN 1891 ARTHUR HAZELIUS FOUNDED THE SKANSEN IN STOCKHOLM, WHICH BECAME THE MODEL FOR SUBSEQUENT OPEN AIR MUSEUMS IN NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE, AND EVENTUALLY IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. MOST OPEN AIR MUSEUMS ARE LOCATED IN REGIONS WHERE WOODEN ARCHETECTURE PREVAIL, AS WOODEN STRUCTURES MAY BE TRANSLOCATED WITHOUT SUBSTANTIAL LOSS OF AUTHENTICITY. A MORE RECENT BUT RELEASED IDEA IS REALIZED IN ECOMUSEUMS, WHICH ORIGINATED IN FRANCE.

                    

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DETAILED NOTE OF BHARATNATYAM

 

                                                              BHARATNATYAM 

                        BHARATA NATYAM IS ONE OF THE OLDEST DANCE FORMS OF INDIA. IT WAS NURTURED IN THE TEMPLES AND COURTS OF SOUTHERN INDIA SINCE ANCIENT TIMES. LATER IT WAS CODIFIED AND DOCUMENTED AS A PERFORMING ART IN THE 19TH CENTURY BY FOUR BROTHERS KNOWN AS THE TANJORE QUARTER WHOSE MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS FOR DANCE FORM THE BULK OF THE BHARATA NATYAM REPERTOIRE EVEN TODAY.

                        THE NAME "BHARATANATYAM" IS DERIVED FROM THREE BASIC CONCEPTS OF BHAVA, RAGA AND THAALA. THE DANCE IS PERFORMED IN THE STAGE AS NRITHAM, NRITHYAM AND NATYAM. BHARATANATYAM IS BASED ON THE THEORIES OF THE BOOKS "NATYASAASTHRAM" AND "ABHINAYA DARPANAM". THE DANCE FORM IS BASED ON "ADAVU" (STEPS) AND "HASTHAMUDRA" (HAND GESTURES). THERE AE 64 BASIC "ADAVU" AND THEY ARE DIVIDED INTO 9 PARTS ON WHICH "THATTADAVU", "NAATADAVU", "KUTHITHUMETTADAVU", MANDIADAVU", "SARIKKAL" AND "THATTUMETTY" ARE VERY IMPORTANT. 

                      COMMUNICATION IS DONE THROUGH "BHAVABHINAYA" (FACIAL EXPRESSION) AND "HASTHAMUDRA" (HAND GESTURES). THE PERFORMANCE STARTS WITH PRAYERS TO GOD GANAPATHI AND WORSHIP OF NATARAJA MOORTHI.  

                       THE SEQUENCE OF THE DANCE PERFORMANCE IS "ALARIPPU", "JATHISWARAN", "SABADAM", "VARMAM", "PADAM", AND "THILLANA", AFTER "THILLANA", WITH 'MANGALA SLOKAM' THE DANCE PROGRAM ENDS. NORMALLY THE PERFORMANCE LASTS FOR TWO TO TWO AND HALF HOURS.

                  TRADITIONAL ROOTS:  BHARATNATYAM IS ITS ORIGIN TO THE NATYA SHASTRA WRITTEN BY BHARATA MUNI, HINDU SAGE. IN ANCIENT TIMES IT WAS PERFORMED AS DASIATTAM BY TEMPLE DEVADASIS. MANY OF THE ANCIENT SCULPTURES IN HINDU TEMPLES ARE BASED IN BHARATA NATYAM DANCE POSTURES KARANAS. IN FACT, IT IS THE CELESTIAL DANCERS, APSARAS, WHO ARE DEPICTED IN MANY SCRIPTURES DANCING THE HEAVENLY VERSION OF WHAT IS KNOWN ON EARTH AS BHARATNATYAM. IN THE MOST ESSENTIAL SENSE, A HINDU DEITY IS A REVERED ROYAL GUEST IN HIS TEMPLE/ABODE, TO BE OFFERED A STANDARD SET OF RELIGIOUS SERVICES CALLED SODASA UPACHARAS (SIXTEEN HOSPITIALITIES) AMONG WHICH ARE MUSIC AND DANCE, PLEASING TO THE SENSES. THUS, MANY HINDU TEMPLES TRADITIONALLY MAINTAINED COMPLEMENTS OF TRAINED MUSICIANS AND DANCERS, AS DID INDIAN RULERS.

                      BHARATA NATYAM AS A DANCE FORM AND CARNATIC MUSIC SET TO IT ARE DEEPLY GROUNDED IN BHAKTI. BHARATA NATYAM, IT IS SAID, IS THE EMBODIMENT OF MUSIC IN VISUAL FORM, A CEREMONY, AND AN ACT OF DEVOTION, DANCE AND MUSIC ARE INSEPERABLE FORMS, ONLY WITH SANGEETAM (WORDS OR SYLLABUS SET TO RAGA OR MELODY) CAN DANCE BE CONCEPTUALIZED.

                 ESSENTIAL IDEAS-BHARATNATYAM IS CONSIDERED TO BE A FIRE-DANCE-THE MYSTIC MANIFESTATION OF THE METAPHYSICAL ELEMENT OF FIRE IN THE HUMAN BODY. IT IS ONE OF THE FIVE MAJOR STYLES (ONE FOR EACH ELEMENT) THAT INCLUDE ODISSI (ELEMENT OF WATER), AND MOHINIATTAM (ELEMENT OF AIR). THE MOVEMENT OF AN AUTHENTIC BHARATNATYAM DANCER RESEMBLE OF THE MOVEMENT OF A DANCING FLAME. CONTEMPORARY TRADITION, EXCEPT BY FEW ORTHDOX SCHOOLS.

                SPIRITUAL SYMBOLISM : BHARATNATYAM IS THED MANIFESTATION OF THE ANCIENT IDEA OF THE CELEBRATION OF THE ETERNAL UNIVERSE THROUGH THE CELEBRATION OF THE BEAUTY OF THE MATERIAL BODY. SOME BHARATNATYAM TECHNIQUE CAN BE TRACED BACK OT THE KAISIKI STYLE. NATYA SHASTRA READS, I HAVE SEEN THE KAISIKI STYLE DURING THE DANCE OF THE BLUE-THROATED LORD (SHIVA). IT CONTAINS OF ELABORATE GESTURES (MRIDU ANGAHARAS, MOVEMENTS OF LIMBS), SENTIMENTS (RASAS), EMOTIONAL STATES (BHAVAS), ACTION (KRIYAS) ARE ITS SOUL. THE CANNOT BE ADEQUENTLY PORTRAYED BY MEN. EXCEPT FOR WOMEN, NONE CAN PRACTISE IT PROPERLY".

              APART FROM THE KAISISKI STYLE, BHARATNATYAM IMBIDED SOME OTHERS. THESE REFLECT OTHER YOGIS SPIRITUAL REVELATIONS, SUCH AS THE VISION OF TWO SAGES, VYAGRAPADA AND PATHANJALI IN CHIDAMBARAM. IN HINDU MYTHOLOGY THE WHOLE UNIVERSE IS THE DANCE OF THE SUPREME DANCER, NATARAYA, A NAME OF LORD SHIVA, THE HINDU ASCETIC YOGI AND DIVINE PURVEYOR OF DESTRUCTION OF EVIL. THE SYMBOLISM OF THE DANCE OF SHIVA (IN THE FORM OF NATARAJA IS) REPRESENTED BY THE ATTITUDE CALLED "ANANDA TANDAVAM". ALSO KNOWN AS THE COSMIC DANCER, HE IS HERE THE EMBODIMENT AND MANIFESTATION OF THE ETERNAL ENERGY IS FIVE ACTIVITIES (PANCAKRIYA), CREATION, POURING FORTH, UNFOLDING, MAINTENANCE OR DURATION (STHITI), DESTRUCTION OR TAKING BACK (SMHARA), CONCEALING, VEILING, HIDING THE TRANSCENDENTAL ESSENCE BEHIND THE GRAB OF APPARITIONS (TIROBHAVA), AND FAVORING, BESTOWING GRACE THROUGH A MANIFESTATION THAT ACCEPTS THE DEVOTEE (ANYGRAHA), SHIVA IS DEPICTED DANCING ON THE DWARFISH BODY OF THE DEMON APASMARA PURUSA, "FORGETFULNESS, LOSS OF MEMORY" CALLED IN TAMIL MUYALAKA - WHO REPRESENTS IGNORANCE, THE DESTRUCTION OF WHICH BRINGS ENLIGHTENMENT, TRUE WISDOM, AND RELEASE FROM THE BONDAGE OF EXISTENCE.

             TECHNIQUE : INCLUDES

             * ABHINAYA OR NATYA - DRAMATIC ART OF STORY - TELLING IN BHARATANATYAM 

            * NRITTA - PURE DANCE MOVEMENTS, AS A MEDIUM OF VISUAL DEPICTION OF RHYTHMS

            * NRITIYA COMBINATION OF ABHINAYA AND NRITTA

                 KARANAS : KARANAS ARE THE 108 KEY TRANSITIONAL MOVEMENTS THAT PUNCTUATE BHARATNATYAM AND OTHER CLASSICAL DANCES. MOST OF THESE 108 KARANAS HAVE A CENTRAL, STATIC POSE AS A BASE, I.E, THE DANCER IS USUALLY SUPPOSED TO STOP AND MAINTAIN IT FOR A VERY BRIEF DURATION (0.5 SEC).

               HASTAS : A DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF BHARATA NATYAM DANCE IS THE USE OF EXPRESSIVE HAND GESTURES AS A WAY OF COMMUNICATION. HASTAS REFERS TO THE VARIETIES OF HAND SYMBOLS THAT A DANCER CAN USE. MANY OF THESE HAND GESTURES ARE WELL KNOWN. FOR EXAMPLE, ANJALI IS OFTEN USED A SALUATION WHEN A PERSON GREETS ANOTHER PERSON. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF HASTAS: ASAMYUTA AND SAMYUTA (SINGLE AND COMBINED), RESPECTIVELY. ABHINAYADARPANAM DESCRIBES 28 ASAMYUTA HASTAS AND 24 SAMYUTA HASTAS AND THEIR USAGE VINIYOGA, ALTHOUGH NATYA SHASTRA MENTIONS MANY MORE, AND THE USAGE STATED IN ABHINAVABHARATI DIFFER CONSIDERABLY FROM THOSE OF ABHINAYADARPANAM, WHICH IS A RELATIVELY RECENT TEXT. MANY HASTAS CAN BE USED IN MORE THAN ONE WAY, DEPENDING ON THE SONG ACCOMPLANYING THE DANCE, AND WHAT THE DANCER IS TRYING TO CONVEY TO THE AUDIENCE.

    

             

                ADAVUS : A SERIES OF STEPS, ADAVUS, THEIR EXECUTION VARY GREATLY FROM STYLE TO STYLE. MOST SCHOOLS RECOGNIZE 108 PRINCIPLE ADAVUS, WHILE SOME STYLES INLUDE OVER 150 ADAVUS. FEW PROFESSIONAL DANCERS USE MORE THAN 60. A COMBINATION OF ADAVUS IS CALLED JATHIS, WHICH MAKE UP THE NRITTA PASSAGES IN A BHARATNATYAM PERFORMANCE.

              BHEDAS AND EYE MOVEMENTS : BHARATNATYAM TECHNIQUE INCLEDS MANY OTHER ELEMENTS, SUCH AS ELABORATE NECK AND EYE MOVEMENTS. ABHINAYA DARPANAM HAS DEFINED IN ALL 9 HEAD MOVEMENTS, 4 NECK MOVEMENTS, AND 8 EYE MOVEMENTS WHICH ARE USED EXTENSIVELY THROUGHOUT THE DANCE.

             HEAD MOVEMENTS (SHIRO BHEDAS) : SAMA, UDHVAHITA, ADHOMUKHA, ALOLITA, DHUTAM, KAMPITAM, PARAVRUTTAM, UTKSHIPTAM AND PARIVAHITAM.

           NECK MOVEMENTS (DHRISHTI BHEDAS) SAMA, ALOLITAL, SACHI, PRALOKITA, NIMILITE, ULLOKITA, ANUVRITTA, AVALOKITA 

                                                                    ITEMS 

                   TYPICALLY A CONTEMPORARY PERFORMANCE INCLUDES :

                * GANAPATI VANDANA : A TRADITIONAL OPENING PRAYER TO THE HINDU GOD GANESH, WHO REMOVES OBSTACLES.

                * ALARIPPU : A PRESENTATION OF THE TALA PUNCTUATED BY SIMPLE SYLLABLES SPOKEN BY THE DANCER. THIS REALLY IS SORT OF AN INVOCATION TO THE GODS TO BLESS THE PERFORMANCE.

                * JATISWARAM : AN ABSTRACT DANCE WHERE THE DRUMS SET THE BEAT. HERE THE DANCER DISPLAYS HER VERSATILITY IN ELABORATE FOOTWORK AND GRACEFUL  MOVEMENTS OF THE BODY.

                * SHABDAM : THE DANCING IS ACCOMPANIED BY A POEM OR SONG WITH A DEVOTIONAL OR AMOROUS THEME.

                * VARNAM : THE CENTER PIECE OF THE PERFORMANCE. IOT IS THE LONGEST SECTION OF THE DANCE PUNCTUATED WITH THE MOST COMPLEX AND DIFFICULT MOVEMENTS. POSITIONS OF THE HANDS AND BODY TELL A STORY, USUALLY OF LOVE AND THE LONGING FOR THE LOVER.

               * PADAM : PROBABLE THE MOST LYRICAL SECTION WHERE THE DANCER "SPEAKS" OF SOME ASPECT OF LOVE, DEVOTION TO THE SUPREME BEING. OR OF LOVE OF MOTHER FOR CHILD, OR THE LOVE OF LOVERS SEPERATED AND REUNITED.

              * THILLANA : THE FINAL SECTION IS PURE DANCE (NRITTA) WHEN THE VIRTUOSITY OF THE MUSIC IS REFLECTED IN THE COMPLEX FOOTWORK AND CAPTIVATING POSES OF THE DANCER. APART FROM THESE RELATIVELY MODERN ITEMS, THERE ARE MORE ANCIENT ITEMS SUCH AS KAUTAM, KOOTHU, SHLOKAM, SWARAJATHI, KRITHI ETC. THE PERFORMANCE CONCLUDES WITH THE CHANTING OF A FEW RELIGIOUS VERSES AS A  FORM OF BENEDICTION. CERTAIN STYLES INCLUDE MORE ADVANCED ITEMS, SUCH AS THARANGA NRITHAM AND SUDHDHA NRITHAM. WHEN A DANCER HAS MASTERED ALL THE ELEMENTS OF DANCE, AS A COMING OUT PERFORMANCE, HE OR SHE GENERALLY PERFORMS AN ARANGETRAM (DEBUT).

              * ANGIKAM : THIS IS  DEVOTIONAL SONG ON LORD SHIVA AND AN ITEM DANCE IN BHARATNATYAM. IT CAN ALSO BE PERFORMED IN BYAPTI SLOW MOTION.

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INDIAN COSTUMES

 

                                 

                                         THE NOTE ON INDIAN COSTUMES

                                           

                  THE FIRST IMPRESSION IS THE LAST IMPRESSION, "THE SAYING, THOUGH MODERN, CAN BE HELD FOR THE TRADITIONAL HINDU COSTUMES ALSO. THE REASON, BEING IN SPITE OF WESTERN INFLUENCES ON THE MODERN FASHION INDUSTRY, THE ETHNIC ELEMENT AND THE TRADITIONAL TOUCH TO ANY INDIAN COSTUME IS STILL ALIVE. THE BHARATIYA TEST ITSELF IS RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTAINING THIS TRADITION.

                 INDIANS HAVE BEEN VERY FASHIONABLE FROM THE VERY ANCIENT TIMES. THE SCULPTURE EVIDENCE FOUND SO FAR DEPICT THAT COTTON CLOTH HAS ALWAYS BEEN WORN IN INDIA BY THE MASSES WHILE THE RICH FAVORED THE USE OF SILKS.

                ELABORATE HEAD-DRESSES AND JEWELLERY WERE EVEN SPORTED BY MEN. THE EARLIER DRESS CODE REVOLVED AROUND WRAPPING THE BODY WITH VARIED LENGTHS OF CLOTH. FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD OF INDIAN PROTO-HISTORY, THE HARAPPAN CULTURE, THE EVIDENCE ABOUT TEXTILES AND DRESSES IS SCANT BUT NOT UNIMPORTANT.

            THE SURVIVAL OF AN ACTUAL FRAGMENT OF COTTON CLOTH, AND THE UPPER GARMENT DRAPED AROUND THE BODY LIKE A SHAWL AS SEEN IN A SCULPTURE, OFFER INTERESTING EXAMPLES, ALTHOUGH IT IS DIFFICULT TO GIVE TO THESE PIECES ANY KINDS OF NAMES. THE LOWER GARMENT WORN BY WOMEN, MUCH LIKE A SARI OR DHOTI OF LATER TIMES, IS REMINISCENT OF THE DESCRIPTION OF THE NITI IN VEDIC LITERATURE.

              ELABORATE HEAD DRESSES, WITH TREMENDOUS DECORATIONS AND PANNIER-LIKE PROJECTIONS, GIVEN SOME CLUE TO THE RANGE OF FASHIONS PREVALENT IN THIS REGARD. WOMEN WOULD USE ONE LENGTH OF PIECE AS THE BLOUSE AND TIE THE OTHER ROUND THEIR WAIST AS A SARI. THESE WOULD ACCENTUATE THEIR FIGURES, MAKING THEM LOOK ATTRACTIVE. THE TYPICAL COSTUME OF THE INDIAN WOMEN, ARE THE SARI AND THE GHAGHRA CHOLI. THE DIVERSE CULTURES AND TRADITIONS HAVE GREATLY INFLUENCED THE STYLE OF THESE COSTUMES.

                THE SARI :

SARI, THE SIX-YARD LENGTH OF CLOTH IS STILL DRAPED BEAUTIFULLY IN THE MOST INTRIGUING MANNER. IT IS WORN WITH A STITCHED BLOUSE. USUALLY SIX METRE IN LENGTH, THE SARI IN ITS MOST ACCEPTED FORM IS WORN WITH A BLOUSE AND PETTICOAT.

                 THE SARI IS PLEATED IN THE FRONT, TUCKED INTO THE WAISTBAND OF THE PATTICOAT, AND THE END IS FLUNG OVER THE SHOULDER, DISPLAYING THE PALLU, WHICH HAS INTRICATE DESIGNS ON IT. THERE ARE REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN THE WAY IT IS WORN.

                  IN THE WESTERN STATES, THE PALLU IN DISPLAYED IN THE FRONT. IN MAHARASHTRA, THE SARI IS 9 METRE LONG AND IS WORN TUCKED BETWEEN THE LEGS. HALF-SARIS ARE WORN BY YOUNG GIRL IN THE SOUTH AND THE NORTH-EASTERN REGIONS.

                BY ACCESSING THE LITERARY SOURCES IN THE VEDIC PERIOD FOLLOWED BY THE PAURANIC OR THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, WE GET A WHOLE BODY OF MATERIAL WITH REGARD TO THE MATERIALS FOR COSTUMES. IT IS WITH MUCH PRIDE AND BEAUTY OF WORDS THAT THESE TEXTILES AND MATERIALS ARE REFERRED TO. NOT ONLY DO WE HEAR OF YAMS (TANTU), WARP OR LOOM (TANTA), AND WOOF (OTU) BUT OF WELL-WOVEN AND PERFUMED GARMENTS IN THE CATEGORY OF VASAS.

              MATERIALS LIKE WOOLEN BLANKETS OF A FINE KIND (KAMBALA), DHUSSA (DURSBA) AND PANVAD ARE SPOKEN OF, BUT SO ALSO IS KSBAUMA, MOST PROBABLY LINEN. GARMENTS MADE OF THE SKINS OF ANIMALS AS WORN BY GODS AND SAGES AND TRIBALS ALIKE ARE REFEREED TO. IN TERMS OF COSTUMES, HOWEVER, ONE IS BY AND LARGE IN THE WORLD OF TIMELESS GARMENTS, BOTH FOR WOMEN AND MEN.

             THE DUPATTA : 

THE VEIL THAT WOMEN STILL USE SO EXTENSIVELY IN INDIA, SOMETHING LIKE THE DUPATTA OR ODHANI OF MODERN TIMES. HAVS ITS EARLY PROTOTYPE IN THE VEDIC PERIOD, AND VARIOUS WORDS SIGNIFYING THE SAME ARTICLE OF APPAREL ARE USED, WITH DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ONE AND OTHER THAT MAY NOT BE EASY TO IDENTIFY. THE WORDS THAT WE HEAR ARE AVAGUNTBANA, NIRINGI, NIRANGIKA, MUKHAPATA, SHIROVASTRA AND YUVANIKA.

                

              SANSKRIT WRITERS LIKE BHASA, SHUDRAKA, BANA AND BHARAVI, AMONG OTHERS, WEAVE-LONG PASSAGES AROUND THE THEME OF VEILS WORN BY WOMEN. THUS, BANA IN HIS FANCIFUL DESCRIPTION OF THE LADIES OF STHANVISHVARA SAYS THAT THE BLUE VEIL, WHICH THEY PUT ON WAS A MERE CUSTOMARY APPENDAGE, REALLY NOT NECESSARY AS THE BEES HOVERING AROUND THEIR FACES, BEING DRAWN THERE BY THEIR SWEET-SMELLING BREATHE, FORMED A SUFFICIENTLY DARL "EXTINGUISHER" OR VEIL. WHEN MAGHA DESCRIBES THE LADIES OF KRISHNA'S HOUSEHOLDS BEIG GAZED AT FOR A LONG TIME BY THE PEOPLE AS THEY HAD REMOVED THEIR VEILS, HE IMPLIES CLEARLY THAT GENERALLY SUCH LADIES WORE VEILS AND , THEREFORE, COULD NOT BE SEEN ORDINARILY BY THE PEOPLE.

                  THE GUPTA CHOLI :

THE TRADITIONAL COSTUME OF THE GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN STATES IS GHAGHRA CHOLI. WITH THEIR GLITTERING MIRROR-WORK THEY LOOK MOST ATTRACTIVE. THIS COMPRISES OF LONG PLEATED SKIRTS, KNOWN AS GHAGHRA OR LEHENGA, AND IS WORN WITH TWIN BLOUSES.

                 THE BLOUSES HAVE ELABORATE MIRROR-WORK AND PATCH-WORK ON THEM AND ARE VERY COLORFUL.  IT IS DESIGNED TO LEAVE THE BACK AND MIDRIB BARE. THESE TYPE OF DRESSES ARE MAINLY WORN BY WOMEN IN RAJASTHAN, UTTAR PRADESH, HARYANA AND GUJARAT.

               THOUGH SALWAR KAMEEZES WERE TO BE THE ORGINAL HERITAGE OF NORTHERN INDIA, IN TODAY'S TIME. IT HAS BECOME THE MOST POPULAR DRESS OF THE MODERN METROPOLITIAN CITIES. IT INCLUDES A BAGGY PAIR OF PYJAMAS CALLED THE SALWAR, WORN WITH A LONG AND FLOWING SHIRT CALLED KAMEEZ. THE KASHMIRI AND THE HIMACHALI WOMEN WEAR A SIMILAR DRESS.

             THEIRS IS THICKER TO SUIT THE CLIMATE AND THE EMROIDERY DONE ON THEM IS PARTICULAR TO THE REGION. IN LUCKNOW, THE BAGGY PYJAMAS ARE REPLACED BY TIGHT  AND LONG LEGGINS THAT FORM MANY FOLDS AT THE ANKLES. THESE ARE CALLED CHURIDARS, SUGGESTING "BANGLES" SO COMFORTABLE IS THE DRESS THAT IT IS WORN MOSTLY BY WORKING WOMEN ACROSS INDIA.

           VARIATIONS OF THIS DRESS ARE WORN IN THE NORTHEAST AND SOUTHERN STATES. THESE ARE KNOWN AS HALF-SARIS. IN MEGHALAYA, THE WOMEN FAVOR THE JYENSYEM, A TRADITIONAL DRESS CONSISTING OF TWO ANKLE LENGTH PIECES OF CLOTH GATHERED AT THE SHOULDERS. IN ARUNACHAL, NAGALAND AND MIZORAM THEY PREFER A BLOUSE AND A LENGTH OF CLOTH WOUND AROUND THE WAIST AND RUNNING DOWN THE ANKLE LIKE A SKIRT, BUT MORE CLOSELY RESEMBLING THE MALE LUNGI OF THE SOUTH.

              SINCE ANCIENT TIMES, THE MOST FAVORED DRESS OF THE INDIAN MEN WAS THE KURTA (AN UPPER GARMENT LIKE SKIRT) AND PYJAMA (A GARMENT LIKE LOOSE TROUSERS). ALTHOUGH THE LENGTH OF BOTH THE GARMENTS DIFFERS FROM STATE TO STATE, THE OUTLINE REMAINS THE SAME. IN THE RURAL AREAS, THE LUNGI OR DHOTI (LONG PIECE OF CLOTH WRAPPED AROUND THE LEGS ) IS WORN.

               HEAD DRESS :

THE GREATEST VARIETY, JUDGING FROM THE EVIDENCE OF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING THAT HAS SURVIVED, LAY PERHAPS IN THE HEAD-DRESS. BASICALLY THE HEAD-DRESS MADE FROM A FABRIC, AS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CROWN WORN BY KINGS AND DEITIES SPOKEN OF IN LITERATURE, TOOK THE FORM OF TURBAN OF AN UNSTITCHED KIND.

               THERE ARE MANY NAMES THAT ONE COMES UPON, INCLUDING USHNISHA, KIRITA, PATTA, VESHTANA, VESTANAPATTA, SHIROVESHTANA. THE MANNER OF WEARING THE TURBAN EVIDENTLY VARIED AS MUCH IN ANCIENT INDIA AS IT DID IN MEDIEVAL TIMES. WE HAVE ELABORATE VERBAL DESCRIPTIONS, AS ALSO VISUAL EVIDENCE, THAT POINT TO THE FONDNESS OF MEN FOR THIS ARTICLE OF APPAREL. IT IS ENTIRELY POSSIBLE THAT CERTAIN STYLE OF WEARING, OR CERTIAN FABRICS, WERE FAVORITES AMONG CERTAIN PEOPLES. ALMOST CERTAINLY, DIFFERENT PERSONS WERE ALSO ENTITLED TO WEAR ONLY GIVEN TYPES OF HEAD-GEAR. THE RANGE OF TURBAN-STYLES THAT WE ENCOUNTER IS REMINISCENT OF THE MANY STYLE IN THE 19 THE CENTURY, EACH STYLE HAVING A SPECIFIC NAME FOR IT AS RECORDED BY FORBES-WATSON.

                THE TURBAN APART, HOWEVER, THERE ARE CLOSE-FITTING CAPS THAT ONE FINDS SOLDIERS AND SOME FOREIGNERS WEARING IN INDIAN SCULPTURES AND PAINTINGS, EVEN THOUGH THESE REMAIN EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE THAT EVERY HEAD WAS COVERED BY A TURBAN. THE TRADITIONAL HEAD ALSO VARIES FROM STATE TO STATE. FOR EXAMPLE IN MAHARASHTRA, A LONG 6 YARD PIECE OF CLOTH IS WRAPPED ROUND THE HEAD IN AN ARTICULATE MANNER IS KNOWN AS "PHETA". THE PAGADI IN MAHARASHTRA AND RAJASTHAN HAVE DIFFERENT LOOKS. THE MODERN HAT RESEMBLES IT IN A WAY. BUT THE EMBROIDERY WORK OF THE RAJASTHAN PAGADI AND THE DESIGN OF MAHARASHTRIAN PAGADI IS WORTH SEEING.

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METAL CRAFT WORK IN INDIA

 

                                    THE METAL CRAFT WORK IN INDIA

           

                   INDIAN ARTISANS KNEW THE ART OF METALWORKING SINCE 3000 B.C. THE BEAUTIFUL FIGURINE OF THE DANCING GIRL BELONGING TO THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION INDICATES THE HIGH LEVEL OF WORKMANCHIP ATTAINED BY ANCIENT CRAFTMEN. THE OTHER HIGH POINTS REACHED BY THE CRAFTMEN IN THE FIELD OF METALWORKING ARE BRONZE SCULPTURES BELONGING TO THE CHOLA RULERS AND THE IRON PILLAR ARE MEHRAULI, IN DELHI, WHICH WAS MADE DURING THE TIME OF KING ASHOK.

               METAL CRAFT IN INDIA : IN INDIA CRAFTMEN USE DIFFERENT METALS LIKE IRON, COPPER, SILVER AND ALLOYS LIKE BRONZE, BELL METAL, WHITE METAL ETC. TO MAKE A VARIETY OF ITEMS SUCH AS POTS, PANS, UTENSILS, PHOTO FRAMES, SCULPTURE OF DEITIES, MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES AND ANIMALS ETC. ITEMS LIKE DOORKNOBS, TAPS, KEY CHAINS, BOXES ETC. ARE ALSO MADE, USING DIFFERENT METALS.

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               GOLD & SILVERWARE : THE PRINCELY STATES OF INDIA DEMANDED NOT ONLY ENAMELLED JEWELLERY BUT ALSO ENAMELLED UTENSILS SUCH AS WINE-CUPS, FINGER BOWLS, PILL BOXES ETC., IN BOTH GOLD AND SILVER REPOUSSE, SOMETIMES STUDDED WITH JEWELS. THE CRAFTSPERSONS OF INDIA EXCEL IN THIS ART. WITH THE EVOLUTION OF NEW TOOLS, TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS, THEY ARE NOW BETTER EQUIPPED TO CATER TO MODERN TASTES.

               

               BRASS & COPPERWARE : INDIA IS THE LARGEST BRASS AND COPPER MAKING REGION IN THE WORLD WITH THOUSANDS OF ESTABLISHMENTS SPREAD ALL OVER FOR ARTICLES MADE OUT OF ONE OR MORE PIECES OF METAL. THE COPPER OR BRASS SHEET IS FIRST MARKED OUT BY A PAIR OF COMPASS AND THE PIECE OR PIECES CUT OFF BY A SCISSOR CALLED KATARI. THE REQUIRED SHAPE IS MADE BY ALTERNATE HEATING AND HAMMERING, AND IS FINALLY TURNED ON THE LATHE. THE FINAL POLISH TO THE ARTICLE IS GIVEN ON THE LATHE ITSELF. MORADABAD IS FAMOUS FOR UTENSILS, BOTH UTILITY AND ORNAMENTAL, MADE OF WHITE METAL AND ELECTROPLATED BRASS AND COPPER. THE ENGRAVING IS EITHER SADA (PLAIN ) OR SIA KALAM. MODERN STREAMLINED ARTICLES OF SWEDISH DESIGN IN POLISHED BRASS OR BURNISHED COPPER ARE ALSO MADE HERE, SATISFYING AND DEMAND FOR MODERN ACCESSORIES AND SOPHISTICATED INTERIOR DECORATION. VARANASI, IN UTTAR PRADESH IS THE FIRST CITY IN INDIA FOR THE MULTITUDE OF ITS CASE AND SCULPTURED MYTHOLOGICAL IMAGES AND EMBLEMATA IN BRASS AND COPPER AS WELL AS HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS. IN RECENT YEARS MIRZAPUR HAS ALSO EMERGED AS ONE OF THE IMPORTANT BRASS INDUSTRIES OF UTTAR PRADESH. GOODS PRODUCED HAVE AN ALL INDIA MARKET, WITH A PORTION BEING EXPORTED TO OTHER COUNTRIES.  SOME OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL AND INTERESTING METALWHERE OF INDIA FOR DAILY AS WELL AS FOR CEREMONIAL PURPOSES ARE CRAFTED IN KASHMIR, BIHAR, WEST BENGAL, ASSAM, ORISSA. TAMIL NADU AND KERALA.

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                  METAL ORNAMENTATION : METAL ORNAMENTS HAVE BEEN  A RAVE IN ALL AGES, AND TIMES. THE ATTRACTIVE CONSTRASTS IN COLOURS AND TEXTILES OF METAL HAS LED TO THE EVOLUTION OF MENTAL ORNAMENTATION THROUGH TECHNIQUES LIKE INLAY, OVERLAY, APPLIQUE, FIXING OF COLOURS ETC.

 

                    BIDRI : BIDRI, A FORM OF SURFACE ORNAMENTATION, TAKES ITS NAME FROM THE CITY OF BIDAR SITUATED NORTH-WEST OF HEDERABAD. THE WORK IS IN BLACK COLOUR WHICH NEVER FACES AND IS RELIEVED WITH SILVER AND GOLD INLAY.

            IN LUCKNOW THE ART OF MANUFACTURING BIDARI IS BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN INTRODUCED FROM THE TIME OF THE NAWABS OF AVADH. THE EMPEROR AT DELHI BESTOWED ON THEM THE DIGNITY OF THE FISH (MAHI MURATTIB) LUCKNOW BIDARI, THEREFORE, ABOUNDS IS FISH MOTIFS, FLORA & FAUNA AND VINE LEAF PATTERNS.

               

                   ENAMELLING : ENAMELLING IS THE ART OF COLOURING AND ORNAMENTING THE SURFACE OF THE METAL BY FUSING OVER IT VARIOUS MINERAL SUBSTANCES. THE BEAUTY OF THE ARTICLE DEPENDS ON THE SKILL AND RESOURCES OF THE WORKER AND THE EXCELLENCE OF THE MATERIALS EMPLOYED. THE RANGE OF COLOURS OBTAINED TO GOLD IS MUCH GREATER THAN THAT ON SILVER, COPPER AND BRASS. THREE FORMS OF ENAMELLING ARE KNOWN TO EXIST. THESE INCLUDE THE CLOISONNE OF JAPAN AND CHINA, THE CHAMLEVE PATTERN EXTENSIVELY PRACTISED IN LUCKNOW AND VARANASI. AND JAIPUR SPECIALISES IN ENAMELLED TRAYS AND TRINKET BOXES.

               IDEAL PLACES TO SHOP : LUCKNOW, VARANASI, HYDERABAD, JAIPUR, BIHAR.

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                                   THE VARIETY OF INDIAN ORNAMENTS

         

                 IN INDIA THERE ARE ORNAMENTS FOR ALMOST ALL PARTS OF HUMAN BODY. SOME OF THESE ARE WORN REGULARLY WHILE OTHERS ARE WORN AT SPECIFIC OCCASIONS, SOME ORNAMENTS ARE WOVEN FOR RITUAL AND CEREMONIAL PURPOSES. FOR THE RITUAL AND CEREMONIAL ORNAMENTS EVEN MATERIAL IS SPECIFIED. THE USE OF ORNAMENTS BY WOMEN IS UNIVERSAL BUT IN MANY COMMUNITIES MEN ALSO WEAR THEM. MEN WEAR THEM ALSO FOR RITUAL AND CEREMONIAL PURPOSES.

              ORNAMENTS USED FOR THE HEAD ARE OF THREE TYPES. THE FIRST IS WHAT WAS CALLED TURBAN JEWELS. THESE WERE NOT IN COMMON USE AND WERE USED MAINLY BY ROYALTY AND CHIEFS IN THEIR TURBANS. THESE ARE CALLED JIGHA OR SARPATI. OTHERS TWO HEAD ORNAMENTS ARE USED BY WOMEN. OF THESE ONE IS FOR THE FOREHEAD (TIKA). THEY COME IN VARIOUS FORMS AND SHAPES. THE OTHER ONE IS FOR HAIR. THIS ALSO COMES IN VARIOUS SHAPES AND SIZES. IN SOME REGIONS THEY ARE WORN REGULARLY WHILE IN SOME OTHERS THE HEAD ORNAMENTS ARE WORN ONLY ON CEREMONIAL OCCASIONS LIKE MARRIAGE.

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               ORNAMENTS OF EAR AND NECK ARE MOST COMMON. THE EAR ORNAMENTS ARE OF VARIOUS TYPES. THE MOST COMMON ARE SMALL TOPS AND THE DROPPING TYPES WITH SPECIAL BANDS OR STRINGS TO SUPPORT THE WEIGHT. THESE ARE GENERALLY WORN IN EAR LOBES BUT WORN TOGETHER. 

            

                         NOSE IS OTHER PART OF BODY WHICH IS POPULARLY USED FOR WEARING ORNAMENTS. SMALL NOSE STUDS AND A CIRCULAR BIG RING (NATH) ARE TWO COMMON TYPES. THE DIFFERENT REGION HAVE VARIATIONS IN SHAPES AND SIZES. THE LARGE RING TYPE ORNAMENT IS GERENALLY WORN ON THE OCCASION OF MARRIAGES AND OTHER CEREMONIES. IN MANY COMMUNITIES ONLY MARRIED WOMEN ARE SUPPOSED TO WEAR NOSE ORNAMENTS.

               NECK IS ADORNED WITH A VARIETY OF ORNAMENTS. THE MOST COMMON ORNAMENT CALLED NECKLACE IS THE ONE THAT HANGS IN THE NECK THROUGH A GOLD COIN OR A THICK THREAD. ANOTHER VARIETY IS THE CHOCKER (GULUBAND) WHICH FITS TIGHTLY AROUND NECK. THE THIRD VARIETY IS THE PENDANT WHICH CAN BE IN ANY CHAIN, STRING OF BEADS OR PLAIN STRING. IN THE SOUTH THE NECKLACE WORN FOR MARRIAGE IS CALLED THALI. WEARING OF GOLD CHAIN WITHOUT ANY PENDANTIS ALSO QUITE POPULAR. THESE CHAINS ARE MADE IN VARIOUS DESIGNS. ONE SPECIFIC NECK ORNAMENT CALLED MANGALSUTRA IS WORN ONLY BY MARRIED WOMEN ALONG HINDUS. IT IS CONSIDERED AUSPICIOUS AND GREAT SIGNIFICANCE IS ATTACHED TO IT. IT IS MADE WITH BLACK GOLD BEADS.

                  ORNAMENTS FOR HANDS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES - FINGERS, WRISTS AND LOWER ARMS AND UPPER ARMS. ARMLETS OR BAZUBAND ARE WORN IN THE UPPER ARM. THESE ARE MAINLY OF TWO TYPES, THE ONE THAT IS TIED WITH STRINGS AND THE OTHER WHICH FIT AROUND THE ARM WITH A LOCKING MECHANISM. THE ORNAMENTS FOR LOWER ARM ARE BRACELET, WRITSLETS AND BANGLES. THE FIRST TWO FIT TO THE ARM WHILE THE BANGLES ARE LOOSE. THE RINGS ALSO HAVE A LARGE VARIETY. THERE ARE SEPARATE RINGS FOR THUMB AND DIFFERENT FINGERS OF HAND. THESE ARE MADE AS SIMPLE CIRCULAR RINGS OR WITH FLORAL PATTERN ON TOP OR WITH STONES FIXED ON TOP. BESIDES ADORNING THE HAND THESE ARE WORN FOR THERAPEUTIC OR MAGICAL OR RITUALISTIC PURPOSES OF FOR WARDING OF EVIL INFLUENCES OF PLANETS. IN A LARGE NUMBER OF COMMUNITIES THE RINGS ARE EXCHANGED BETWEEN MAN AND WOMAN ON THE OCCASION OF MARRIAGE.

                IN A LARGE NUMBER OF COMMUNITIES A THICK WAIST ORNAMENT IS WORN. IS IS CALLED KARDHANI (KAMARDHANI). GENERALLY, MARRIED WOMEN WEAR IT. THE ORNAMENTS FOR THE LEG ARE OF TWO TYPES - THE ANKLEST AND TOR RINGS. ANKLETS COME IN VARIOUS SHAPES. SOME CLING TO THE ANKLES WHILE OTHERS ARE LOOSE LIKE BANGLES.

               THERE IS A SPECIFIC TYPE CALLED PAYAL WHICH IS WORN AROUND ANKLES BY WOMEN AND MAKES A MUSICAL SOUND WHEN WOMEN MOVE AROUND. THE TOE RINGS ARE WOMEN IN THE FINGERS OF FEET. IN MOST OF THE COMMUNITIES THESE ARE TRADITIONALLY WORN BY MARRIED WOMEN ONLY.

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MUGHALS ARCHITECTURAL

 

                             ARCHITECTURAL STYLE OF THE MUGHALS

                 MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE IS THE STYLE THAT DEVELOPED IN INDIA UNDER THE MUGHAL DYNASTY IN THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES. THIS IS A BLEND OF ISLAMIC, PERSIAN AND INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. TEH BUILDINGS OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE REFLECTS NOT ON THE ARCHITECTURAL TECHNIQUES AND WEALTH BUT ALSO THEIR LOVE FOR POETRY, PERSONALITY AND OTHER ARISTIC INCLINATIONS. MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE HAS ITS ORIGIN IN ITS RELIGION, ISLAM. THE CONCEPTS APPARENT IN ISLAM LIKE POWER, PLEASURE AND DEATH ARE REFLECTED IN THE FORTS, DURBARS, MOSQUES, TOMBS, GARDENS AND SO ON.

             EARLY MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE : THE MUGHALS WERE AN INDIAN ISLAMIC DYNASTY WHICH RULED MOST OF NORTHERN INDIA FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH TO THE MID-EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE CAME INTO PROMINENCE WITH THE RULE OF BABUR WHO WAS THE FIRST MUGHAL EMPEROR IN INDIA IN 1526. BAHUR'S VICTORY OVER IBRAHIM LODI, INITIATED THE ERECTION OF A MOSQUE AT PANIPAT SUCCEEDED BY ANOTHER CALLED THE BABRI MASJID IN AYODHYA. THE MAQBARA IN BARODA IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE EARLY MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE RELIED ON POST-AND BEAM CONSTRUCTION AND SCARECELY USED ARCHES. SOME GREAT FORTS AND PALACES OF THE EARLY MUGHAL PERIOD CAN BE TRACED IN THE REIGN OF AKBAR (1556-1605) IN AGRA. LAHORE AND FATEPUR SIKRI. MAUSOLEUM TO HUMAYUN IS ANOTHER IMPORTANT SIGNIFIER OF THE EARLY MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 

                AKBAR AND MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE : EMPEROR AKBAR WAS THE FIRST MUGHAL RULER DURING WHOSE RULE WE FIND THE EMERGENCE OF WONDERFUL MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE, WHICH RAPIDLY PROGRESSED WITH HIS REIGN. HE BUILD MASSIVELY AND THE STYLE WAS UNIQUE WHICH WAS DEVELOPED IN HIS RULE. MOST OF AKBAR'S BUILDINGS ARE ALMOST ENTIRELY IN RED SANDSTONE, EXEMPTED AT TIMES THROUGH MARBLE INLAY, FATEHPUR SIKRI WHICH IS LOCATED26 MILES WEST AGRA, WAS CONSTRUCTED IN THE LATE 1500 S AND BEARS THE TESTIMONY TO THE ERA OF HIS ROYAL HERITAGE. IN GUJARAT AND MANY OTHER PLACES WE FIND THE PRESENCE OF A STYLE, WHICH IS A BLENDOF MUSLIM AND HINDU CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ARCHITECTURE. FATEPUR SIKRI DEFINES AKBAR'S FINEST STYLES OF ARCHITECTURAL BRILLIANCE UNMATCHED IN ELEGANCE AND SPLENDOR.

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                THE SOUTH GATEWAY IS WELL KNOWN, EXCELLING ANY SIMILAR ENTRANCE IN INDIA IN ITS SIZE AND STRUCTURE. THE TOMB OF AKBAR'S FATHER HUMANYUN, AKBAR'S TOMB AT SIKANDRA ARE SOME SUCH FINEST WORK OF ARCHITECTURAL MAGNIFICENCE WHICH BROADLY HIGHLIGHTS THE MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE PROTOTYPES. THE TOMB PLACED IN A GARDEN AT DELHI, HAS AN INTRICATE GROUND PLAN WITH CENTRAL OCTAGONAL CHAMBERS, WHICH IS JOINED BY AN ELEGANTLY FACETED ARCHWAY, SURMOUNTED BY CUPOLAS, KIOSKS, AND PINNACLES RUCTURE OF THE KIND AND OF GREAT VIRTUE.

                       HAHANGIR & MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE : JAHANGIR'S REIGN DURING 1605 - 1627 SAW THE DECLINE IN THE HINDU INFLUENCE ON MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. JAHANGIR'S REIGN WAS NOTED FOR ARCHITECTURAL WORKS. HIS STYLE BASICALLY WAS PERSIAN LIKE HIS GREAT MOSQUE AT LAHORE, WHICH IS COVERED WITH ENAMELED TILES. AKBAR'S MAUSOLEUM WAS BUILT IN JAHANGIR'S TIME, BUT JAHANGIR'S INTEREST WERE PAINTING JAHANGIR BEAUTIFULLY AROUND SPRING. THE TOMB OF ITIMAD - UD - DAULA COMPLETED IN 1628, WAS BUILD ENTIRELY OF WHITE MARBLE AND COVERED WHOLLY BY PIETRA DURA MOSAIC. THIS IS ONE OF THE MOST RESPLENDENT EXAMPLES OF THAT CLASS OF ORNAMENTATION THAT CAN BE FOUND ANYWHERE. THE SHALIMAR GARDENS AND OTHER PAVILIONS ON THE SHORE OF KASHMIR'S DAL LAKE WAS ALSO MAGNIFICENTLY BUILT BY HIM. THE SHALIMAR BAGH, IS DISTINGUISHED BY A SERIES OF PAVILIONS ON CARVED PILLARS, SURROUNDED BY POOLS WITH SEAT WHICH CAN ONLY BE REACHED BY STEPPING STONES. JAHANGIR WAS THE PERSON WHO WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUGHAL GARDEN. JAHANGIR'S OWN TOMB, I TIMADUDDULAH 'S AND AKBAR'S TOMBS, HAVE NO DOME, MINARATES AND ORNAMENTATION ARE ONLY EVIDENT. 

                        AFTER ITIMAD-UD-DAULAH DIED HIS DAUGHER COMMISSIONED THE CONSTRUCTION IN WHITE MARBLE OF HIS EXQUISTLE TOMB AT AGRA WHICH WAS FINISHED IN 1628. THE TOMB APPEALED DUE TO ITS DECORATION WITH VARIOUS STYLES OF INLAY. THE EXTENSIVE USE OF WHITE MARBLE AS A MATERIAL AND INLAY AS A DECORATIVE MOTIF WERE THE TWO MAJOR INNOVATIONS DISTINGUISHING THE MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE LATER YEARS.  

                          SHAHJAHAN & MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE : MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE REACHED ITS PROTECTION IN SHAHAJAHAN'S REIGN (1627 - 1658). HUMAYUN'S TOMB WAS THE FIRST OF THE TOMBS, WHICH CONTINUED THE SAGA OF THE SUCCESSION OF TOMBS OUT OF WHICH THE TAJ MAHAL IS A MAGNIFICENCE PIECE OF ART. THE RED FORT CONTAINS THE IMPERIAL MUGHAL PALACE, WHICH IS SITUATED IN DELHI, IS AGAIN ONE OF SHAHJAHAN'S EXCELLENCE.  TRADITION AND INNOVATION WAS VERY INTELLIGENTLY REGARDED IN SHAHJAHAN'S ARCHITECTURAL EXTRAVAGANZA. MARBLE, WHICH WAS EASILY AVAILABLE IN RAJASTHAN, WAS USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTIONS. IN THE PALACE FORT FOR OF AGRA, SHAH JAHAN MARBLES WAS USED FOR THE RE-BUILDING OF THE DIWAN-I-AM. THE MOTI MASJID IS HIGHLY REPRESENTATIVE OF PURITY, BALANCE, AND GRACEFULNESS WHICH WAS HIS APPRECIABLE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE AGRA FORT.

                  THE JAMA MOSQUE OF DELHI AND THE PEARL MOSQUE OF AGRA ARE REMISCENT OF THE STYLE THAT WAS EMINENT IN MUGHAL ERA. NEAR THE CITY OF OLD DELHI, SHAH JAHAN BUILD A NEW CAPITAL, SHAJJAHANABAD, WITH ITS MAGNIFICENT RED FORT. THE HALL OF PUBLIC AUDIENCE, IN THE FORT CONTAINS THE PEACOCK. THRONE, WHICH CONSISTED ENTIRELY OF JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS AND STONES. SHAH JAHAN TOOK TEN YEARS TO BUILD THE CITY, AND OTHER THAN PARTS OF THE WALL AND THREE OF ITS ORIGINAL 14 GATES, THE RED FORT AND THREE MOSQUES HAS SURVIVED THE RAVAGES OF TIME.

                         

             TAJ MAHAL : TAJ MAHAL, IS THE FINEST EXAMPLE OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE COMBINING PERSIAN, TURKISH AND INDIAN STYLES. THERE ARE INCRIBED TEXTS FROM THE KORAN ROUND THE TALL DOORWAYS WHICH APPEAR LIKE DESIGNS. THE LETTER 30 FEET OR MORE ABOVE THE LINE OF THE EYE APPEAR TO BE EXACTLY OF THE SAME SIZE AS THOSE A FOOT ABOVE THE FLOOR LEVEL, THIS IS ABSOLUTELY REVALATION OF THE GREAT MASTERY AND PERSPECTIVE OF THE ARTISTS, IT IS MADE IN  WHITE MARBLE. THE TAJ MAHAL IS DESCRIBED AS " A DREAM IN MARBLE " AND THE MOSAIC IS STUDDED WITH ONYX, JASPER, CORNELIAN, MALACHITE, CARBUNCLE, LAPIS LAZULI AND PRECIOUS STONES.

                        

                THE TAJ MAHAL'S APPROXIMATED ESTIMATE IS 32 MILLION RUPEES, BUT IT IS TIMELESS AND PRICELESS DUE TO ITS BEATY VALOR. THE TAJ IS AMONG THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, AND CITED AS " JEWEL OF MUSLIM ART IN INDIA AND ONE OF THE UNIVERSALLY ADMIRED MASTERPIECES OF THE WORLD'S HERITAGE".

 

               

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